Download file (7.12 MB)
Download as zip (6.49 MB)

Collection

Citation

Description:

Functionally graded materials (FGMs) exhibit continuous property variations that enable unique functionalities and provide efficient platforms for systematic property optimization. Here, we report the fabrication of FGMs with graded structural heterogeneity by annealing an amorphous metal under a one-dimensional temperature gradient. Using lock-in thermography (LIT), we spatially mapped transverse thermoelectric conversion with high spatial and temperature resolution. A pronounced non-monotonic response was observed, with the maximum anomalous Ettingshausen effect, transverse charge-to-heat conversion in magnetic materials, appearing in the atomic-heterogeneity regime well before crystallization. This enhancement was not captured by conventional structural or longitudinal transport measurements, highlighting the exceptional sensitivity of transverse thermoelectric phenomena to subtle structural heterogeneity. Structural analyses using scanning transmission electron microscopy and atom probe tomography revealed Fe-based crystalline alloys and Cu nanoclusters embedded in the amorphous matrix, whose heterogeneity accounts for the enhanced response. These findings establish temperature-gradient-annealed FGMs, combined with LIT, as a powerful methodology for probing structural-heterogeneity-driven transverse electron transport and designing high-performance flexible materials.

Rights:

• Creative Commons BY Attribution 4.0 International
  

Keyword: functionally graded materials, anomalous Ettingshausen effect, lock-in thermography, structural heterogeneity, transverse thermoelectric conversion

Date published: 2026-12-31

Publisher: Informa UK Limited

Journal:

• Science and Technology of Advanced Materials (ISSN: 14686996) vol. 27 issue. 1 2643965

Funding:

• Japan Science and Technology Agency JPMJER2201

Manuscript type: Publisher's version (Version of record)

MDR DOI:

First published URL: https://doi.org/10.1080/14686996.2026.2643965

Related item:

Other identifier(s):

Contact agent:

Updated at: 2026-04-03 13:18:25 +0900

Published on MDR: 2026-04-03 16:27:43 +0900