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[Katsuhiko Ariga](https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2445-2955)

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Interfacial mechano-nanoarchitectonics for chemical, materials and biological processesRSCMechanochemistryREVIEWPublished on 22 May 2026Licensed under CC-BY 4.0Interfacial mechaKatsuhiko ArigaKdTtriSamf(aUaResearch Center for Materials NanoarchiteScience (NIMS), 1-1 Namiki, Tsukuba 305-nims.go.jpbGraduate School of Frontier Sciences, The UKashiwa 277-8561, JapanCite this:RSCMechanochem., 2026, 3,483Received 31st October 2025Accepted 21st May 2026DOI: 10.1039/d5mr00134jrsc.li/RSCMechanochem© 2026 The Author(s). Published byno-nanoarchitectonics forchemical, materials and biological processesKatsuhiko Ariga *abThe recent surge of interest in mechanochemistry and mechanobiology indicates a convergence ofhistorical mechanical processes with contemporary nanoprocesses. This review explores interfacialmechano-nanoarchitectonics in chemical, materials, and biological processes. Active research is beingconducted on mechanochemistry, which is more closely related to controlling functional materialsthrough by surface structures and properties. Advances in probe microscopy have enabledmechanochemistry researchers to analyze various nanoscale phenomena in conjunction with theapplication of mechanical stimuli. As demonstrated by numerous examples in the field ofmechanobiology, the mechanical properties of basic interfaces have the capacity to regulatesophisticated biological properties by coupling mechanical effects from surfaces. This assertion isapplicable to a broad spectrum of targets, ranging from the regulation of cell differentiation to thecomprehension of disease mechanisms. In addition, the air–water interface is an optimal location for themechanical adjustment of nanostructures and molecular structures. The mechanical processes occurringat this interface are characterized by their high efficiency and are driven by delicate forces analogous tothose observed in biological systems. The review concludes that interfaces are essential for combiningmechanical manipulation as the most traditional method in materials processing with the cutting-edgemethodology of nanoarchitectonics.1. Introduction: nanoarchitectonicswith mechano-processesNanoarchitectonics is a broad concept involving the construc-tion of functional molecules from nanounits, such as atoms andatsuhiko Ariga received his PhDegree from the Tokyo Institute ofechnology in 1990. He joinedhe National Institute for Mate-ials Science (NIMS) in 2004 ands currently the leader of theupermolecules Group andsenior scientist with specialissions of the Research Centreor Materials NanoarchitectonicsMANA), NIMS. He is alsoppointed as a professor at Theniversity of Tokyo.ctonics, National Institute for Materials0044, Japan. E-mail: ARIGA.Katsuhiko@niversity of Tokyo, 5-1-5 Kashiwa-no-ha,the Royal Society of Chemistrymolecules. It incorporates various methods.1 Functional mate-rials are constructed by combining techniques such as atomicand molecular manipulation, chemical reactions, physicaltransformations of materials, self-assembly and self-organization, and the use of external forces and elds fororientation and organization. Engineering techniques such asmicrofabrication and nanofabrication are also employed, aswell as biochemical processes. Unlike self-assembly, whichoen uses a single equilibrium process, nanoarchitectonics isbetter suited for creating hierarchical and asymmetric struc-tures.2 Because the concept is comprehensive and not particu-larly restrictive, nanoarchitectonics can be used with manymaterials and for a wide range of applications. Since all mate-rials are essentially composed of atoms and molecules, nano-architectonics, which builds materials from these components,can be applied to all materials. If the ultimate theory of physicsis the theory of everything,3 then nanoarchitectonics could beconsidered a method for everything in materials science.4Traditional materials science has been eclectic and has notalways succeeded in creating desired substances. By integratingnanotechnology into this eld and establishing the concept ofnanoarchitectonics—building materials from atoms andmolecules—it is expected that all substances can be rationallyconstructed. Nanoarchitectonics is not entirely independentfrommaterials chemistry; rather, it can be seen as the means tofulll the dreams of materials chemistry.RSC Mechanochem., 2026, 3, 483–500 | 483http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1039/d5mr00134j&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2026-07-04http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2445-2955https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/RSC Mechanochemistry ReviewHumanity faces many challenges, including energy deple-tion, environmental pollution, and biomedical issues. We aredeveloping scientic and technological solutions to theseproblems. While some contributions have been made even incyberspace with information technology and articial intelli-gence, the key to solving these problems lies in developingexisting functional materials that can address them. Consider-able effort has been devoted to developing materials thatgenerate and store energy,5 materials that can detect andremove environmental pollutants,6 and materials that can treatvarious medical problems.7 One could argue that the history ofhuman development is linked to the progress of materialsscience.In the 20th century, various elds of materials chemistrydeveloped and became systematized. While it is not the purposeof this review to address each individual development inmaterials chemistry, such progress and systematization can beunderstood from objective facts. This is evidenced by the factthat several research elds have emerged and have had theirobjectives clearly dened. This enabled the rational creation ofmaterials. These efforts continue today, with inorganic8 andorganic9 substances, hybrids and composites,10 polymers,11supramolecules,12 and bio-related materials13 being created asfunctional materials. It was recognized during this time thatcontrolling the nanostructure of materials is important forimproving their functionality. This trend was spurred by thedevelopment of nanotechnology. Nanotechnology enablesobservation14 and manipulation15 of structures and phenomenaat the atomic and molecular levels. Nanotechnology has alsomade it possible to analyse and understand phenomena innano-sized regions.16The next step is to combine materials chemistry, which cansynthesize materials, with nanotechnology, which can analysenanostructures. This combination will lead to the developmentof functional materials that take advantage of nanostructures.Similar efforts are being made in elds such as supramolecularchemistry to create functional materials tailored to the charac-teristics of nanostructures.17 However, much of the research isbeing carried out independently in each eld. This differs fromthe situation during the emergence of nanotechnology, whensignicant unied advances were made in nanoscience andtechnology. A comprehensive, holistic concept for assemblingfunctional materials using nano-knowledge is needed. Nano-architectonics fulls this role.18 It is a methodology for con-structing functional materials using atoms, molecules, andnanomaterials.19 As Richard Feynman pioneered nanotech-nology in the mid-20th century,20 Masakazu Aono proposednanoarchitectonics during the transition from the 20th to the21st century.21 Nanoarchitectonics is considered a post-nanotechnology concept.22One particularly interesting area among recent advances inscience and technology is the application of mechanicalprocesses that were widely used in the early days of humankindto cutting-edge science. Mechanochemistry23 and mechanobi-ology24 are at the forefront of this eld. Many mechanicalprocesses involve macroscopic displacements. However,cutting-edge science focuses on controlling even more delicate484 | RSC Mechanochem., 2026, 3, 483–500structures and phenomena at the micro- and nanoscales.Nanoarchitectonics techniques also involve mechanicalprocesses, such as the orientation and organization of materialsinduced by external forces or elds and various fabricationtechniques. Advances in materials science have led to materialsthat respond to light with specic energy or whose propertieschange based on redox processes. Nevertheless, more basicmechanical stimuli also offer signicant advantages. Thisbecomes clear when considering the stimulus response systemsof organic substances. Photoisomerization applies only tosubstances possessing a chromophore group that absorbsspecic light. Substances responding to electronic stimuli do sovia their participating redox-active functional groups. Incontrast, some degree of mechanical deformation can occur inall substances, albeit to varying extents. Materials that respondto optical or electrical stimuli are generally limited to those withreceptor sites for those stimuli. In contrast, almost all materialscan respond to mechanical stimuli. In terms of universality andapplicability, controlling material structure and functionthrough mechanical processes has an advantage.On the other hand, optical and electrochemical stimuli havetheir own advantages. These stimuli can be transmittedremotely via units such as photons or electrons. In contrast,with the exception of ultrasound-based methods, mechanicalprocesses require direct contact transmission of stimuli. Giventhis characteristic, controlling interfacial contact andphenomena is crucial for mechano-processes. Chemical reac-tions and structure formation mediated by interfacialphenomena are key to mechanochemistry. Furthermore, manymechanobiological studies discuss controlling bioprocesses bytransmitting mechanical stimuli from interfaces. Takinga comprehensive approach to controlling nanostructures andregulating their functions, including both chemistry andbiology, leads to the concept of mechano-nanoarchitectonics.Interfacial phenomena are also important here. Mechanicalprocesses are fundamentally driven by macroscopic displace-ments. The desired functional and structural control occurs atthe nanoscale or mesoscale. Interfaces connect these two scales.This review particularly emphasizes the importance of inter-faces in mechanochemical processes. However, I would like tobriey comment on this point. The emphasis on surfaces stemsmainly from the fact that they provide a convenient method forapplying force when solid-state interactions are involved.Nevertheless, other systems exist. For instance, numerousexamples of mechanochemical reactions conducted underhydrostatic pressure are available. It can be argued that inter-molecular interactions can also be approached mecha-nochemically. While intermolecular interactions are typicallyconsidered from the perspective of interaction energy, thefundamental driving force is actually the energy gradient—theforce that drives these interactions—which is inherentlymechanochemical. From this viewpoint, this review can bepositioned as highlighting the aspects where interfaces signif-icantly contribute to mechanochemical processes.From this perspective, this review discusses interfacialmechano-nanoarchitectonics in chemical, materials and bio-logical processes (Fig. 1). First, this review article will introduce© 2026 The Author(s). Published by the Royal Society of ChemistryFig. 1 Outline of the nanoarchitectonics concept (top) and targets ofthis review article (bottom). Reprinted with permission from ref. 26,Copyright 2017 American Chemical Society. Reproduced under termsof the CC-BY license from ref. 31, 2020 American Chemical Society.Review RSC Mechanochemistryexamples of chemical and biological processes involvingmechanical processes at interfaces. Through these examples,the role of interfaces in mechanical processes will be re-examined. The next section will discuss methodologies forrationally coupling macroscopic mechano-processes with nano-phenomena using liquid interfaces, mainly the air–waterinterface. The review concludes that interfaces are essential forcombining mechanical manipulation, the most traditionalmethod in materials processing, with the cutting-edge meth-odology of nanoarchitectonics. Nanoarchitectonics is a growingconcept. Rather than providing a sharp denition, it is a usefulconcept for enhancing the eld's comprehensiveness. There-fore, comprehensively considering many examples of nano-architectonics can sometimes reveal a unied concept orsignicance. This means that by considering things that cannotbe overtly labelled as nanoarchitectonics from the perspectiveof assemblingmatter, important aspects become apparent. Thisreview aims to provide such an opportunity.2. Interfacial mechano-processes inchemical and materials scienceSeveral examples illustrate the importance of examining andinterpreting surface phenomena to understand mechano-chemistry. This section collects and illustrates some recentexamples of such studies.The rate of mechanochemical reactions typically increasesexponentially with applied stress. Therefore, the orientation offunctional groups relative to the surface is an important factor.Tysoe and his co-workers analysed the effect of normal stress onadsorbates oriented perpendicular to the reacting surface.25They showed that a critical stress is required to initiate mech-anochemical reactions. Actually, they investigated this usingdensity functional theory calculations to simulate the effect of© 2026 The Author(s). Published by the Royal Society of Chemistrycompressing a homologous series of alkylthiolate species ona hydrogen-terminated copper surface. A critical stress isnecessary to decompose thiolates with perpendicular C–CH3bonds. In contrast, no critical stress is required for thiolateswith nearly horizontal C–CH3 bonds. These predictions wereveried by measuring the mechanochemical reaction rates ofthese alkylthiolates on a Cu(100) substrate using an atomicforce microscope (AFM). For ethyl thiolate, where the alkylgroup ends are nearly parallel to the surface, no hysteresis wasobserved in the approach/retraction curves. This conrms thatmechanochemical activity does not exhibit a critical stress.However, propyl thiolate exhibits critical behaviour, and thecritical process is accompanied by a structural change due tonormal stress-induced rotation around the C–C bond. Theseresults suggest that critical phenomena can be caused by eithera structural change or a transformation. These results providean example that can be used to elucidate the details of mech-anochemical reaction mechanisms at surfaces. This method-ology may also provide insight into the origin of criticalphenomena in general stress-induced processes. A morefundamental understanding of these effects could lead to thedesign of ultra-mechanically stable surface lms.Understanding mechanochemistry and surface engineeringrequires driving and measuring nanoscale chemical reactionsat surfaces. To advance this goal, Felts and his co-workersdeveloped an AFM technique that can measure nanoscalesurface reactions triggered by multiple external stimuli(Fig. 2).26 Using this technique, they measured the local reduc-tion of graphene oxide as a function of temperature andmechanical force at the contact point. By independently tuningthe force and temperature of a heated atomic force microscopeprobe, they measured the kinetics and thermodynamics ofoxygen group desorption from graphene oxide in air. They useda two-step routine involving driving scans that cleave functionalgroups at elevated temperatures and/or high forces, followed bymeasurement scans at room temperature and low forces. Thisenabled in situ characterization of the changing surfacecomposition and a quantitative understanding of the locallydriven chemical reactions at surfaces. They monitored theresulting changes in relative friction and found that, forexample, oxygenated graphene exhibited friction levels 2–9times higher than pristine graphene. This technique is usefulfor understanding the nanoscale surface chemistry of two-dimensional (2D) materials that respond to various externalstimuli, including mechanochemistry. By varying the tip mate-rial, the functional groups to be cleaved, the environmentalcomposition, and the substrate material, one can obtain thechemical kinetics of virtually any frictional interface. Appro-priately passivating the tip material makes it possible to observereactions on the tip without signicantly altering the reactionpathway. This makes the technique ideal for studying thebehaviour of real mechanochemical systems in an environmentthat closely resembles their operational environment.Due to their unique mechanical and electronic properties,graphene-based materials have been widely used as wear-resistant protective coatings for micro- and nanodevices andas sensor channel materials. However, severe wear resultingRSC Mechanochem., 2026, 3, 483–500 | 485Fig. 2 AFM technique for evaluation of nanoscale surface reactions triggered by multiple external stimuli: (A) reduction of graphene oxide bya hot AFM tip with heat and pressure; (B) the resulting friction force image. Reprinted with permission from ref. 26, Copyright 2017 AmericanChemical Society.RSC Mechanochemistry Reviewfrom strong chemical interactions and mechanochemicalreactions at the interface poses a signicant challenge formoving parts. A detailed understanding of this phenomenon isnecessary. Xiao, Chen, and their co-workers demonstrated thatwear sensitivity at the atomic step edge of a graphenemonolayeris dominated by the mechanochemistry of the frictional inter-face (Fig. 3).27 When chemically inert diamond is used, onlymechanical damage, such as surface fracture and folding,occurs. In contrast, mechanochemical reactions activatedthrough chemically active SiO2 microspheres result in atomicwear. In the atomic wear mechanism induced by mechano-chemical stimulation at the interface between an SiO2 probeand a monolayer of graphene, thermally activated C–O–Si bondformation, promoted by mechanical stress during contact, isthought to lower the energy barrier for C–C bond scission. Thisstudy shows that shear-induced atomic wear of graphene stepedges varies signicantly with the chemical activity of thecontact surfaces. This suggests that improving the wear resis-tance of graphene-based materials may require reducingFig. 3 Wear sensitivity at the atomic step edge of a graphene monolayeprobe (left) andmechanically stimulated atomic attrition at the tribologicaReprinted with permission from ref. 27, Copyright 2024 American Chem486 | RSC Mechanochem., 2026, 3, 483–500mechanochemical interactions at the friction interface. Carefulconsideration of the surface chemistry of tribological materialsand control of surface mechanochemistry will be crucial whenusing layered graphene materials in nanoscale devices.Controlling mechanochemistry at interfaces between mate-rials improves their performance, not just at nanoscopicsurfaces, as observed with probe microscopes. For example,Qiao, Li, and their co-workers used mechanochemistry to createinterface-integrated mixed matrix membranes based on metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) and microporous polymers,achieving efficient gas separation (Fig. 4).28 Mixed matrixmembranes overcome the limitations of polymer and nano-porous membranes and are expected to enable energy-efficientmaterial separation. Characterization and molecular dynamicssimulations revealed that ball milling signicantly improvedthe dispersion of the ller, interfacial compatibility, separationperformance, and aging resistance of the mixed matrixmembranes. MOF llers dispersed well in the mixed matrixmembrane, and polymer chains rmly attached to the llerr: lateral force measurement at the graphene step edge with an AFMl interface of the SIO2 probe andmonolayer graphene substrate (right).ical Society.© 2026 The Author(s). Published by the Royal Society of ChemistryFig. 4 Preparation of interface-integrated mixed matrix membranes based on metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) and microporous polymers,achieving efficient gas separation: conventional solution mixing (top) and mechanochemical processing (bottom). Reprinted with permissionfrom ref. 28, Copyright 2025 Royal Society of Chemistry.Review RSC Mechanochemistrysurface through simple ball milling. Molecular dynamicssimulations were used to investigate the effect of coordinationbond cleavage on ller–matrix interactions. The simulationsdemonstrated that mechanochemical treatment disrupts thecrystalline periodicity of the ller surface, forming a disorderedinterface and promoting the intercalation of polymers withinthe ller and the integration of the ller and the matrix. Theprepared mixed matrix membranes exhibited signicantlyimproved ller dispersion and interfacial compatibility. Thissignicantly improved the separation performance of binaryand ternary gas mixtures, surpassing that of state-of-the-artmembranes. For instance, they demonstrated high CO2/N2selectivity for gas separation. Taking interfacial processes intoaccount, mechanochemical processing may be an alternativeapproach to achieving desirable properties and maximizing theperformance of hybrid membranes.Although there is a wealth of research on mechanochem-istry, this section just presents examples that emphasize inter-facial phenomena. Advances in probe microscopy technologyhave made it possible to analyse various nano-level phenomenain conjunction with the application of mechanical stimuli.These technological advances link mechanochemistry, inter-faces, and nanotechnology. Even without nano-specic anal-ysis, it is evident that interfacial phenomena are essential tomechanochemistry and its resulting functions. Many physicalproperties are determined by structures such as particleboundaries, and mechanochemical control of surface structureand state is reected in material functions. The examplesprovided are just a few and are not necessarily representative.However, they demonstrate the importance of interfaces inmechanochemistry. Controlling interfaces is essential for© 2026 The Author(s). Published by the Royal Society of Chemistryadjusting and modifying nanostructures and their resultingphysical properties.3. Interfacial mechano-processes inbiologyInterfacial phenomena are important in mechanobiology aswell as mechanochemistry. Mechanobiology controls biologicalphenomena through mechanical perturbations. What role doesthe interface play? One could argue that the roles of interfacesin mechanobiology are more important than those for mecha-nochemistry. Within cells, substances and signals are trans-mitted efficiently, and stimuli on the cell surface aretransmitted to the cell's interior. In other words, interfacialphenomena can trigger advanced biological processes withincells. This section provides examples of how mechanicalphenomena at interfaces control biological functions.Interest in developing dynamically adaptive biomaterials tocontrol cellular functions at interfaces throughmechanobiologyis growing. For example, Jia et al. controlled the differentiationof human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) using a liquid–liquid interface between a protein-containing aqueous phaseand a peruorocarbon (Fig. 5).29 Protein monolayer nanosheetsthat mimic the extracellular matrix (ECM) were formed at theinterface and functioned as adaptive materials that can betuned to adapt dynamically to cellular traction forces. Ultra-structural changes from the protein monolayer to hierarchicalbers occurred due to interaction with hMSCs at the interface.In order to resist cellular traction forces, the protein nanosheetsdeformed, generating elastic forces and leading to the forma-tion of protuberances. As the cells gradually spread, focalRSC Mechanochem., 2026, 3, 483–500 | 487Fig. 5 Behaviours of human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) at the liquid–liquid interface between a protein-containing aqueous phase anda perfluorocarbon: images of the dynamic fibronectin remodelling process (top) and a model for hMSC remodelling of the protein nanosheet(bottom). Reprinted with permission from ref. 29 Copyright 2020 Wiley-VCH.RSC Mechanochemistry Reviewadhesion turnover occurred, accompanied by the formation anddisassembly of focal adhesions. Subsequently, the proteinaggregates compressed, resulting in the appearance of micro-wrinkles as the aggregates packed together. This triggered thespatial rearrangement of proteins, which propagated thestimuli within the cells and resulted in feedback for changes inthe fate of stem cells. Elongated bronectin bers promote theformation of extended focal adhesion structures, enhance focaladhesion kinase activation, and promote neural differentiationof stem cells. These results help elucidate the feedback mech-anisms linking ECM dynamics, biological signalling, and long-term stem cell fate. They pave the way for mechanobiologyapplications at liquid interfaces in tissue engineering andregenerative medicine.Jia et al. reported an adaptive biomaterial based on a two-dimensional network of protein nanobrils at a liquid–liquidinterface by culturing hMSCs at a similar liquid–liquid interfacebetween an aqueous phase and a peruorocarbon (Fig. 6).30 Thismaterial promoted hMSC neural differentiationmore effectivelythan at protein nanosheets via focal adhesion kinase (FAK)-mediated signalling. The work also discovered that lipid ramicrodomains play a pivotal role in the initial adhesion of cellsand their subsequent neural differentiation. Lipid ras488 | RSC Mechanochem., 2026, 3, 483–500internalize and recruit cell adhesion molecules to various cellmembranes. They also function as concentration platforms,inducing the integration of large signalling complexes. Thesefunctions enable cells to rapidly adapt to constantly changingmicroenvironments. In this context, FAK is one of the keymechanosensors at adaptive liquid interfaces. The spatial andtemporal regulation of FAK phosphorylation is essential forhMSC neural differentiation. This discovery provides newinsights into the fundamentals of dynamic cell-ECM interac-tions and a deeper understanding of the biophysics underlyingmechano-transduction. Furthermore, incorporating bioactiveproteins and responsive polymers has the potential to lead tofurther advancements. Liquid interfaces may enable the designof adaptable biomaterials with applications in regenerativemedicine and tissue engineering that were previouslyunimaginable.Developing hMSC-based therapeutics is crucial, yet a funda-mental problem remains. That is the shortage of adult stemcells. Technology capable of maintaining pluripotency and stemcell-like phenotypes over long periods during large-scale in vitroexpansion is necessary. Song et al. developed a differentiation-free hMSC expansion technique that uses the mechanicaleffects of solid surfaces.31 In this method, hMSCs are controlled© 2026 The Author(s). Published by the Royal Society of ChemistryFig. 6 Neuronal differentiation of hMSCs at the interfacially assembled two-dimensional network of protein nanofibrils (top) and adaptive liquidinterface inducing neural differentiation of hMSCs via lipid raft assembly and FAK phosphorylation (bottom). Reproduced under terms of the CC-BY license from ref. 30, 2022 Springer Nature.Review RSC Mechanochemistryusing highly aligned fullerene nanowhisker (FNW) nano-patterned scaffolds (Fig. 7). The FNW surface arrays werefabricated using a simple Langmuir–Blodgett (LB) technique.Protein nanopatterns were adsorbed onto these arrays, and cellspreading occurred along the long axis of the FNWs. Thisresulted in more uniform biophysical signals and activation ofthe hMSC mechano-transduction process. These effects led toFig. 7 Fullerene nanowhisker (FNW) nanopatterned scaffolds control thunder terms of the CC-BY license from ref. 31, 2020 American Chemica© 2026 The Author(s). Published by the Royal Society of Chemistrythe uniform elongation and strong orientation of hMSCs. Theyalso inuenced histone acetylation and methylation patternsand induced a self-renewal pattern in the hMSC nuclei. Cellscultured on nanopatterned surfaces of highly aligned FNWsmaintain long-term pluripotency and improved regenerativecapacity through appropriate mechanical cell contractility andnuclear localization of yes-related proteins. The LB method ande hMSC self-renewal process by mechanotransduction. Reproducedl Society.RSC Mechanochem., 2026, 3, 483–500 | 489Fig. 8 Molecular compression reporter using pseudostable hairpins ofa pseudostable DNA structure through Förster resonance energytransfer (FRET): (A) crowding sensor; (B) compression sensor. Repro-duced under terms of the CC-BY license from ref. 32, 2024 AmericanChemical Society.RSC Mechanochemistry Reviewits simplied variants are relatively simple and can be easilyadopted in biomedical laboratories. This could facilitate theproduction of centimeter-scale nanotopography substrates forlarge-scale hMSC expansion in clinical settings.Understanding mechanobiological phenomena requiressensing the mechanical state of surfaces. However, there isa lack of documentation on molecular probes for measuringcompressive forces at surfaces, which pose a challenge formechanobiological research. Salaita and co-workers developeda novel molecular compression reporter using pseudostablehairpins (Fig. 8).32 This probe is based on a pseudostable DNAstructure that folds in response to external compressive forces.Using Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET), this workquantied hairpin folding as a function of temperature andmolecular crowding. This method applied the principle ofmolecular crowding, in which the entropic degrees of freedomof a biomolecule or polymer are reduced by isotropic concen-tration, to an interfacial molecular compression sensor. Thisprovides a powerful tool for mapping compressive forces inbiological systems. Indeed, the analysis mapped the compres-sive forces generated by primary naive T cells. These forces aregenerated by cytoskeletal protrusions triggered by actomyosinactivity. This study may provide important information forFig. 9 Effect of nanovibrational stimulation on E. coli surface adhesionanovibrational stimulation (right). Reproduced under terms of the CC-B490 | RSC Mechanochem., 2026, 3, 483–500developing tools to study the mechanical forces exerted by cells.It has the potential to improve our understanding of not only Tcell mechano-transduction, but also a wide range of biologicalprocesses.Mechanical stimuli, such as surface vibration, are useful forunderstanding the mechanobiology of biological subjects, suchas bacteria. Although mechanical stimuli have been used tocontrol mechano-dependent behaviour in mammalian cells,a similar level of understanding is lacking in bacteria. Surfaceadhesion, an early stage in biolm formation and surfacebiofouling, is mechanically dependent and therefore a potentialtarget for mechano-control. Mendes and co-workers mechan-ically stimulated bacteria using nanometer-scale surface vibra-tions and investigated their effects on adhesion (Fig. 9).33 Theyfound that nanoscale vibration stimulation altered the cellmembrane potential and reduced surface adhesion consis-tently. Nanovibration stimulation with picoNewton intensitydepolarized cells on surfaces, thereby inhibiting the adhesionof highly polarized cells. This disrupted the reversible adhesiondynamics of cells, suppressing surface adhesion, sessile tran-sition, and biolm formation. These ndings suggest thepotential benets of using mechanobiology to control bacterialbehaviour. They pave the way for controlling bacterial behaviourthrough nanometer-scale mechanical vibrations at interfaces.Removing dead cells is important for maintaining normaltissue homeostasis and regulating immune responses. Surfacemechanobiological properties are key to this process. Young'smodulus decreases in cancer cells undergoing ferroptosis (atype of programmed cell death dependent on iron). Van derMeeren, Skirtach, and their co-workers nanocoated cells usinglayer-by-layer (LbL) assembly to modulate Young's modulus andstudy its effects (Fig. 10).34 This study aimed to analyse how themechanobiology of ferroptotic cancer cells affects the efficiencyof efferocytosis. With LbL coating technology, ferroptotic cells'mechanical properties can be altered by increasing theirYoung's modulus and decreasing loss tangent. They demon-strated that an increase in Young's modulus primarily leads toincreased efferocytosis (the process by which apoptotic cells areremoved by phagocytic cells). An increase in Young's modulus,n and sessile transition: surface adhesion scheme (left) and effect ofY license from ref. 33, 2024 American Chemical Society.© 2026 The Author(s). Published by the Royal Society of ChemistryFig. 10 Nanocoating of a cell using layer-by-layer (LbL) assembly formechanical modulation: LbL coating of a ferroptotic cancer cell (top),elasticity measurement (bottom left), and microrheological measure-ment (bottom right). Reprinted with permission from ref. 34, Copyright2023 Wiley-VCH.Review RSC Mechanochemistrywhich depends on the number of LbL layers and is due tosurface nanoarchitectonics, results in enhanced efferocytosis byprimary macrophages. This study demonstrates the importantrole of dead cell mechanobiology in regulating macrophageefferocytosis and suggests the possibility of using dead cellsurface coatings to co-deliver drugs, adjuvants, and other typesof transporters.To understand various biomedical problems, it is necessaryto know how matrix stiffness gradients affect cellular behaviourand function at the cellular level. One example is the effect onmesenchymal stem cell (MSC) immunoregulation. For instance,in periodontitis, the strength of the stiffness gradient at theso-hard tissue interface is signicant. Zhang et al. investigatedhow high and low stiffness gradient strengths affect MSCimmunoregulation in vitro (Fig. 11).35 They examined themicroenvironment and immunophenotype of the stiffnessgradient of MSCs at a typical so-hard tissue interface inhealthy individuals and patients with periodontitis. They foundFig. 11 The features of the integrin b1 clusters at the cellular front andrear (left and middle) and the schematic downstream pathway forregulating the immunophenotype of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs)(right) in the presence of the cellular-scale matrix stiffness gradient.Reprinted with permission from ref. 35, Copyright 2024 Wiley-VCH.© 2026 The Author(s). Published by the Royal Society of Chemistrythat patients with periodontitis exhibited lower stiffnessgradient strength at the periodontal ligament-atheroscleroticjunction compared with healthy individuals. This is primarilydue to the lower mineral content in patients with periodontitis.These effects mechanically regulate the development of MSCimmunophenotypes through cell polarization. The polarizedlocalization of integrin b1 clusters, the activation of myosin IIB,and the remodelling of chromatin via nuclear mechano-transduction play a role in this process. Decreased cell polari-zation promotes an anti-inammatory phenotype in response tolow stiffness gradient strength at the cellular level. These resultsalso have implications for the design of biomaterials for inter-facial tissue engineering and regenerative medicine, in whichmechanical factors regulate the development of MSC immunephenotypes via cell polarization.This section presents several examples of mechanobiologydriven by mechanical surface effects. The examples were chosento demonstrate a variety of topics, ranging from fundamentalphenomena to medical applications. They are not exhaustive orrepresentative of the eld. However, they demonstrate that thephysicochemical and sometimes simple mechanical propertiesof interfaces can control advanced biological properties. Thisapplies to a variety of targets, including controlling cell differ-entiation and disease mechanisms. This is due to the highlyorganized functional morphology of cells. Conversely, if suchorganized functional structures could be constructed usingnanoarchitectonics, simple mechanical stimuli on surfacescould drive extremely complex functions. The above mecha-nobiology examples point the way toward achieving this.4. Langmuir–Blodgett science asa foundation for finer control ofmechano-nanoarchitectonicsThe previous two sections presented examples of mechanicalprocesses, such as mechanochemistry and mechanobiology,reected in structure fabrication and function development.Controlling mechanical processes at interfaces has been shownto be key to these advances. Despite these commonalities, thesesystems are highly diverse, operating according to a wide varietyof principles. Progress in research can easily be seen as specic.In this context, a signicant scientic challenge is devisinga comprehensive methodology that addresses all phenomena ina unied manner. This review focuses on the Langmuir–Blodgett (LB) technique36 as a candidate for such a method-ology, given its over 100-year history.37 Specically, this sectionargues that monolayers and ultrathin lms at gas–liquid inter-faces, primarily air–water interfaces, can serve as a foundationfor the development of mechanochemistry, mechanobiology,and mechano-nanotechnology. It discusses the reasons for this,provides some promising research examples, and exploresfuture prospects.A thin lm of amphiphiles spread at the air–water interfaceis called a Langmuir monolayer. This interface is ideal forforming various ultrathin lm structures, including mono-layers38 and related thin lms.39 These thin lms can beRSC Mechanochem., 2026, 3, 483–500 | 491Fig. 12 Aligned nanorods prepared by spreading oligo(p-phenylene vinylene) at the air–water interface (middle bottom and right images) andentangled nanofibers formed in its solution as gel fibers (middle top and left images) with near-field scanning optical microscopy observations.Reprinted with permission from ref. 45, Copyright 2014 American Chemical Society.RSC Mechanochemistry Reviewcompressed or expanded laterally by macroscopic mechanicaldeformation. This allows control over nanostructures, such asthe orientation and aggregation state of components within thethin lm. In other words, a liquid interface is an ideal envi-ronment for coupling mechanical stimuli with nanostructuralchanges,40 despite their signicant size differences. Further-more, the interface between heterogeneous media with widelydiffering dielectric constants is where materials with differentsolubility properties meet. It is also where molecular recogni-tion41 and the formation of supramolecular polymers42 occurand where reactions43 and the immobilization of bi-ocomponents such as enzymes,44 take place. This providesa rational platform for linking mechanical stimuli with nano-,molecular-, and bio-phenomena. Though the Langmuir–Blodgett (LB) method is a traditional technology with a historyof over 100 years, it is also a eld in which cutting-edge eldssuch as mechanochemistry, mechanobiology, and mechano-nanoarchitectonics can be developed. To explore its potential,the following section presents some examples.The air–water interface allows for the nano-control of theinternal structure of supramolecular assemblies. Sakakibaraet al. reported that they formed aligned nanorods measuring340 ± 120 nm in length and 34 ± 5 nm in width by spreadingoligo(p-phenylene vinylene) at the air–water interface andmechanically compressing it (Fig. 12).45 These supramolecularassemblies differ signicantly from the entangled nanobersthat form as gel bers in solution. Near-eld scanning opticalmicroscopy observations revealed that changes in molecularorientation result in distinct excited-state characteristics uponlocalized photoexcitation in these two types of supramolecularassemblies. In entangled gel network bers, which are typicallyformed in solution, individual molecules align perpendicular tothe long axis of the bers. This leads to long-range excitationenergy transfer within the entangled bers, resulting in signif-icant uorescence quenching. In contrast, the molecules innanorods formed by compression at the air–water interfacealign parallel to the rods' long axis. This nanostructure exhibits492 | RSC Mechanochem., 2026, 3, 483–500signicant uorescence enhancement. Therefore, entangled gelbers with perpendicularly alignedmolecules are favourable forexcitation energy transfer, while nanorods with parallel align-ment are favourable for charge transport. These ndings implythat the molecular organization and nanoscale morphology ofself-assembled structures can be altered through mechanicalprocesses at the air–water interface. Controlling excited-stateproperties could be useful for efficient sensing and imagingapplications.The mechanical action of vortex ow at the air–water inter-face can induce chiral nanoassemblies from achiral moleculesand generate chiral properties. Maeda et al. demonstrated thatvortex ow can induce and control the supramolecular chiralstructure of aggregates consisting of achiral trans-bi-s(salicylaldiminato)Pt(II) complexes with hexadecyl chains(Fig. 13).46 The circularly polarized luminescence direction andintensity of these Pt(II) complex aggregates can be preciselytuned by adjusting vortex conditions such as rotation directionand ow velocity. Furthermore, an increase in vortex-inducedluminescence was observed with an increase in vortex owvelocity. Circularly polarized luminescence has various appli-cations that have been investigated by controlling its chiralityand intensity. This mechanical methodology at the interface isexpected to provide important insights into future technologiesfor forming functional luminescent materials.Control of the assembly of luminescent molecules can beattempted through mechanical processes at the air–waterinterface in order to achieve specic optical properties. Forinstance, materials that exhibit both mechano-luminescenceand electroluminescence are useful for sensing and optoelec-tronics applications. Acharya and co-workers used 1,2-bis(4-(1-([1,1-biphenyl]4-yl)-2,20-diphenylvinyl)phenyl)-1,2-diphenylethene as a luminescent molecule (Fig. 14).47 Theyobtained aggregation-induced emission (AIE)-active complexesby forming supramolecular spherical aggregates at the air–water interface. These molecules were found to have a highlytwisted structure at the air–water interface. The phenyl rings© 2026 The Author(s). Published by the Royal Society of ChemistryFig. 13 Control of supramolecular chiral structure of aggregates consisting of achiral trans-bis(salicylaldiminato)Pt(II) complexes with hexadecylchains by vortex flow at the air–water interface. Reprinted with permission from ref. 46, Copyright 2022 Wiley-VCH.Review RSC Mechanochemistrypromoted strong benzene-H bonding at the air–water interface,forming stable monolayers of the molecules. Furthermore, theAIE effect signicantly enhanced the emission of the lumines-cent molecules in both monolayer and multilayer Langmuir–Blodgett (LB) lms. The obtained results demonstrated thehigh-contrast, reversible mechano-chromic behaviour of theluminescent molecules, where temperature acts as a mechan-ical stimulus that alters the molecular packing to switch pho-toluminescence. These ndings underscore the importance ofcontrolling the organization of AIE complexes in interfacialmechanical processes to optimize luminescent properties forefficient lighting and sensing applications.Fig. 14 Formation of spherical aggregates of 1,2-bis(4-(1-([1,10-biphenyinterface: plausible formation mechanisms (left) and AFM topography imaref. 47, Copyright 2018 American Chemical Society.© 2026 The Author(s). Published by the Royal Society of ChemistryAs seen in the previous example, mechanical processes at theair–water interface can induce structural changes, such asmolecular twisting. These changes can be used to drive molec-ular machines or optimize the structure of receptor moleculesthrough macroscopic mechanical motion.48 Fig. 15A showsa steroid cyclophane operating as a molecular machine at theinterface.49 This molecular machine has a central cyclophanering structure to which four steroid moieties are attached viaexible spacers. Specically, one of the steroid moieties isa cholic acid unit with three hydroxyl groups on one side.Without pressure, the hydrophilic side of the cholic acid unitadheres to the water surface, adopting an open conformation.l]-4-yl)-2,2-diphenylvinyl)phenyl)-1,2-diphenylethene at the air–waterges of the spherical aggregates (right). Reprinted with permission fromRSC Mechanochem., 2026, 3, 483–500 | 493Fig. 15 Control of themolecular machine andmolecular receptor at the air–water interface: (A) guest capture by a steroid cyclophane; (B) chiralrecognition of amino acids by a molecular receptor with asymmetric twisting; (C) discrimination of uracil and thymine derivatives by an armedcyclononane molecular receptor.RSC Mechanochemistry ReviewWhen pressure is applied by macroscopic compression of themonolayer, the molecular machine forms a three-dimensionalcavity. Repeated compression and expansion, the process thatchanges sizes of the monolayer macroscopically at a scale oftens of centimeters, results in the repeated capture and releaseof guest molecules. In an interfacial environment, nanoscalemolecules can be grasped and released using bulk mechanicalstimuli that can be manipulated by hand.The molecular receptor depicted in Fig. 15B is capable ofgenerating an asymmetric twist and selectively absorbing chiralmolecules due to its chiral environment upon compression ofthe receptor monolayer.50 By aligning this receptor at the air–water interface, the monolayer system successfully reversed thebinding selectivity of chiral isomers of amino acids throughmacroscopic compression. This enabled the recognition ofchiral amino acid molecules through hand movements.Fig. 15C shows a molecular receptor called armed cyclononane494 | RSC Mechanochem., 2026, 3, 483–500aligned as a monolayer on the water surface.51 By graduallyapplying lateral pressure to the membrane and tuning itsstructure, it was found that, under optimal conditions, thereceptor could selectively recognize uracil over thymine deriv-ative with 64-fold accuracy. In this example, the selectiverecognition of nucleic acid bases was achieved by simplymechanically pushing the membrane. Thus, mechanicalprocesses at the air–water interface allow for the manipulationof molecular machines and receptors through movementssimilar to hand movements.Furthermore, another investigation quantitatively analysedmolecular deformation at interfaces using a simpler molecularmachine. Using binaphthyl-type amphiphilic molecules asopenable molecular pliers, this research investigated the extentto which macroscopic mechanical energy is used for moleculardeformation (Fig. 16).52 First, the system positioned themolecular pliers at an air–water interface and gradually© 2026 The Author(s). Published by the Royal Society of ChemistryFig. 16 Mechanochemical tuning of the binaphthyl conformation at the air–water interface. Reprinted with permission from ref. 52, Copyright2015 Wiley-VCH.Review RSC Mechanochemistrycompressed them. The dihedral angle of the binaphthyl groupwas then measured to determine the degree to which the plierswere closed. Based on these data, this research used quantumchemical calculations to determine the energy required formolecular deformation. This approach also thermodynamicallyestimated the energy value for the mechanical deformation ofa macroscopic monolayer. The two values were very similar. Assurface pressure increases from 0 to 10 mN m−1, approximately0.2 kcal mol−1 mechanical energy is stored and the sameamount of molecular deformation energy is used. At higherpressures, however, the molecular deformation energy becomessmaller than the mechanical energy. Nevertheless, it has beensuggested that, in interfacial systems, macroscopic mechanicalenergy can be used very efficiently to deform molecularmachines. The results presented here pertain to the air–waterinterface, but it is highly intriguing that this analytical methodcan be applied to other interfaces possessing degrees offreedom. For instance, extending it to systems such as liquid–solid interfaces would allow for a more generalized under-standing of the role of interfaces in mechanochemistry.Fig. 17A provides a rough comparison of the operating effi-ciencies of machines and mechanisms in systems of varioussizes.53 The typical energy is calculated by multiplying the forceacting on the system by its size. This value is then divided by thesystem's weight (mass) and plotted against its size. The data arecompiled based on howmuch weight is manipulated per unit ofenergy. Despite their signicant size differences, macroscopicmachines, such as automobiles and human movement;molecular machines in biological systems; and the molecularmachines at interfaces discussed here, manipulate largeamounts of weight per unit of energy. In other words, thesesystems can move things with little energy. Conversely, articialmolecular machine systems based on photoisomerization andother mechanisms use large amounts of energy per unit weight.It is also known that photoisomerization and other processesconsume energy in processes other than isomerization, result-ing in inefficient operation. Mechanically driven molecularmachine systems at interfaces can simply and efficiently drivemolecular machines, much like scissors in macroscopicsystems. It is experimentally known that processes such asphotoisomerization involve signicant waste. This is becausesuch processes oen include steps where absorbed energy is notfully utilized and is instead lost in other processes. In contrast,© 2026 The Author(s). Published by the Royal Society of Chemistryin mechanical deformation, energy is used efficiently. Forexample, as seen in the deformation of a spring, mechanicalprocesses utilize all energy efficiently when there are no energylosses due to friction. There is still room for improvement inmolecular machines. Mechano-nanoarchitectonics at interfaceswill make this possible.Fig. 17B summarizes the relationship between differentphenomena and applied forces.54 Many biological phenomenaare achieved through molecular deformation and movementdue to weak forces. In contrast, stimuli such as light orconventional mechanochemistry only operate within a muchlarger range of forces. The delicate and sophisticated functionsobserved in biological systems, which operate within a weakerrange of forces, remain unexplored in articial stimulussystems. The force exerted at the air–water interface is calcu-lated to be equivalent to the force in this unexplored area.Future development of advanced molecular functions must bebased on interface science. The special dielectric environmentand so molecular deformation at the interface can greatlyenhance the molecules' inherent potential.This section demonstrated that the air–water interface is anideal place to mechanically adjust nanostructures and molec-ular structures. Our work in this area is largely pioneering andhas yet to be systematized. However, changes in aggregate andmolecular structures are linked to various interactions, as wellas to chemical, physical, and optoelectronic effects. As weexpand our understanding of these interactions, we anticipatethat this methodology will be applicable to a variety of systems.When considered fundamentally, the more important conceptto emphasize is the mechanical connement effect. Thermo-chemistry is mechanochemistry under conditions of lowcongurational order (high entropy). Mechanics promotesreactions by either reducing entropy or increasing congura-tional order. The gas–liquid interface is one method for ori-enting and constraining diverse reactive structures. Thisessence is expected to become clearer as techniques foranalyzing various phenomena at the gas–liquid interface at themolecular level advance. While observation techniques for solidsurfaces are currently highly developed, we also hope to seetheir development targeting the gas–liquid interface in future.Mechanical processes at interfaces are interesting becausethey are highly efficient and driven by delicate forces similar tothose found in biological systems. Biological systems functionRSC Mechanochem., 2026, 3, 483–500 | 495Fig. 17 (A) Universal comparisons of machines: operated weight (mass) per energy at different scales; (B) forces required for various molecularevents, spanning a wide range from 1 to 10 000 pN. Reprinted with permission from ref. 54, Copyright 2022 Springer-Wiley-VCH.RSC Mechanochemistry Reviewat so interfaces, such as membrane surfaces, protein andreceptor pockets, and biopolymer surfaces, rather than insolution. Biomolecules move exibly in interfacial environ-ments, demonstrating high efficiency and functionality. Toarticially mimic such systems, the concept of mechano-nanoarchitectonics at interfaces is likely important. Of course,there are many thin lm fabrication methods besides the LBmethod. However, as demonstrated in this section, LB thinlms are particularly well-suited for studying specicphenomena at the solid–liquid interface relevant to biologicalsystems.5. Summary and future perspectivesHumans have long used mechanical processes to gather andprocess materials. Advances in materials chemistry have madeit possible to produce diverse materials in a rational way.Advances in nanotechnology and nanoarchitectonics now allowus to analyse and control these structures at the nanoscale. Thisprocess requires more advanced optical and electronic tech-niques. However, growing interest in mechanochemistry and496 | RSC Mechanochem., 2026, 3, 483–500mechanobiology suggests an integration of ancient mechanicalprocesses and cutting-edge nanoprocesses. There is a sense ofrational unication in the development of materials. Mechan-ical processes have signicant advantages over more sophisti-cated optical and electronic processes because almost allmaterials can respond to mechanical stimuli. With the excep-tion of those using probe microscopes, mechanical stimuli aremacroscopic and require direct contact. Therefore, interfacesare necessary to link macroscopic mechanical processes tonanoscale structural and functional control. From thisperspective, this paper introduces recent research examplesthrough the concept of mechano-nanoarchitectonics atinterfaces.Although not exhaustive or representative, this paper hashighlighted several examples of mechanochemistry andmechanobiology research emphasizing interfacial phenomena.Advances in scanning probe microscopy have enabled mecha-nochemistry researchers to analyse various nanoscalephenomena in conjunction with the application of mechanicalstimuli. In addition to these cutting-edge technologies, activeresearch is being conducted on mechanochemistry, which is© 2026 The Author(s). Published by the Royal Society of ChemistryReview RSC Mechanochemistrymore closely related to controlling functional materials throughmodifying surface structure and state. In particular, interfacecontrol is essential for structural control and the resultingexpression of physical properties. Several mechanobiologyexamples demonstrate that the mechanical properties of simpleinterfaces can control advanced biological properties byinducing mechanical effects on surfaces. This applies to a widerange of targets, from controlling cell differentiation to under-standing disease mechanisms. This is due to the highly orga-nized functional morphology of cells. By constructing organizedfunctional structures using nanoarchitectonics, simplemechanical stimuli on surfaces can drive highly complexfunctions. Furthermore, this review has demonstrated that theair–water interface is an ideal location for adjusting nano-structures and molecular structures mechanically. Mechanicalprocesses at this interface are highly efficient and driven bydelicate forces similar to those in biological systems. Advancedfunctional systems that mimic living organisms may emergefrom these environments. Integrating these ndings can lead toa comprehensive concept such as mechano-nanoarchitectonicsat interfaces.Moving forward, two additional directions are also worthconsidering. The rst is the integration of multiple compo-nents. Biological systems, such as photosynthetic and signaltransduction systems, exhibit sophisticated properties in whichnumerous functional elements are organized within a singlemembrane and function together.55 Drawing from nature, onecould employ nanoarchitectonics as a means of designingprocesses that take advantage of interconnected mechanicalsignaling. For instance, responses to mechanical stimuli couldbe transmitted between multiple functional units, resulting indirectional functionality. Alternatively, responses could beaggregated to produce greater functionality. Creating suchsystems requires the rational control of the arrangement andorganization of functional units within interfaces. Two-dimensional nanoarchitectonics technologies56 that canassemble nanostructures within two-dimensional interfacialsurfaces as designed are crucial to achieving this. Promisingtechnologies include the formation of molecular patterns at theair–water interface57 and two-dimensional metal–organicframeworks (MOFs)58 and covalent organic frameworks(COFs).59 Of course, this review does not cover every single caseor concept. For instance, it does not mention “catch bond”,60one of the most intriguing features of biomacromechanics. Acatch bond refers to the phenomenon where bond strengthincreases as applied force rises, just before the bond is ulti-mately broken. Although not discussed in this review, suchprocesses should also be incorporated into the above consid-erations. Similarly, many research efforts in mechanochemistryand related elds are continuously made. Therefore, recentpapers are additionally cited as references for readers.61Another direction is toward larger surface areas. Interfacialmechanochemistry and mechanobiology greatly contribute toelucidating mechanisms through discussions at a nanoscopicscale. Linking these ndings to large-scale industrial outputsmay present a future challenge. Although the interface envi-ronment is nanoscale in thickness, it can be innitely expanded© 2026 The Author(s). Published by the Royal Society of Chemistryin the in-plane direction. Even if each mechanically driven unitis nanofunctional, nanofunctions can be generated as massiveoutputs if an extremely large number of them can be integratedon a two-dimensional surface and simultaneously mechanicallydriven. Advances in thin-lm technology are needed to createlarge, highly reliable two-dimensional structures in huge areasto achieve this. Until now, nanofunctions have primarily beenthe subject of basic research, thought of as sophisticated yetminute. However, if nanofunctions could be expanded acrossa large two-dimensional surface and driven by mechanicalstimuli, functions such as catalysis, signal transduction, andpollutant removal could be realized with nanoscale precision ona practical scale.Author contributionsK. A.: conceptualization, writing, review & editing, and fundingacquisition.Conflicts of interestThere are no conicts to declare.Data availabilityBecause this is a review article paper, new data are not included.AcknowledgementsThis study was partially supported by the Japan Society for thePromotion of Science KAKENHI (grant numbers JP23H05459and JP25H00898).Notes and references1 K. Ariga, J. Li, J. Fei, Q. Ji and J. P. Hill, Adv. Mater., 2016, 28,1251–1286.2 K. Ariga, X. Jia, J. Song, J. P. Hill, D. T. Leong, Y. Jia and J. Li,Angew. Chem., Int. Ed., 2020, 59, 15424–15446.3 R. B. Laughlin and D. Pines, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A.,2000, 97, 28–31.4 (a) K. Ariga and R. Fakhrullin, Bull. Chem. Soc. 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Published by the Royal Society of Chemistry Interfacial mechano-nanoarchitectonics for chemical, materials and biological processes Interfacial mechano-nanoarchitectonics for chemical, materials and biological processes Interfacial mechano-nanoarchitectonics for chemical, materials and biological processes Interfacial mechano-nanoarchitectonics for chemical, materials and biological processes Interfacial mechano-nanoarchitectonics for chemical, materials and biological processes Interfacial mechano-nanoarchitectonics for chemical, materials and biological processes Interfacial mechano-nanoarchitectonics for chemical, materials and biological processes Interfacial mechano-nanoarchitectonics for chemical, materials and biological processes Interfacial mechano-nanoarchitectonics for chemical, materials and biological processes Interfacial mechano-nanoarchitectonics for chemical, materials and biological processes