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[Linawati Sutrisno](https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3085-9660), [Katsuhiko Ariga](https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2445-2955)

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[Functional particle nanoarchitectonics](https://mdr.nims.go.jp/datasets/4f390af5-2769-4f76-8463-95eb82381c57)

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Functional particle nanoarchitectonicsVol.: (0123456789)J Nanopart Res          (2026) 28:175  https://doi.org/10.1007/s11051-026-06699-7REVIEWFunctional particle nanoarchitectonicsLinawati Sutrisno   · Katsuhiko Ariga Received: 11 May 2026 / Accepted: 17 June 2026 © The Author(s) 2026and sustainability. By focusing on representative breakthroughs, we elucidate how nanoarchitectonics addresses challenges in energy efficiency, environ-mental safety, and advanced healthcare. The unique design philosophy of nanoarchitectonics underpins its role in achieving targeted delivery, high biocom-patibility, and improved sensor capabilities, paving the way for next-generation materials and industrial applications. These recent developments illustrate the indispensable role of nanoarchitectonics in driv-ing innovation for a sustainable and technologically advanced society.Keywords  Nanoarchitectonics · Nanoparticles · Energy · Environment · Catalysis · Biomedical applicationsIntroductionSince its proposal in the early twenty-first century, nanoarchitectonics has developed over more than two decades [1] as a field characterized by an exten-sive and all-encompassing conceptual scope, making it challenging to describe comprehensively. In this review, we focus specifically on nanoparticles within this vast domain, providing an overview of recent progress by highlighting several representative topics.The creation of functional materials through the control of nanostructures has advanced steadily in recent years by utilizing a range of methodologies. Abstract  Nanoarchitectonics has emerged as a pivotal paradigm for the design and development of functional nanoparticles, enabling the precise integra-tion of atoms, molecules, and nanoscale structures to create materials with novel properties and multifunc-tionality. This review highlights key advances in nan-oparticle synthesis, structural control, and applica-tions in catalysis, energy, environmental remediation, sensing, and biomedicine. Notable progress includes the creation of multifunctional core–shell particles, stimuli-responsive carriers, and high-performance biosensors, demonstrating enhanced performance L. Sutrisno State Key Laboratory of Radiation Medicine and Protection, School of Radiation Medicine and Protection, and Collaborative Innovation Center of Radiological Medicine of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions, Soochow University, Suzhou, ChinaL. Sutrisno International Center for Young Scientists (ICYS), National Institute for Materials Science, 1‑1 Namiki, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305‑0044, JapanK. Ariga (*) Research Center for Materials Nanoarchitectonics (MANA), National Institute for Materials Science (NIMS), 1‑1 Namiki, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305‑0044, Japane-mail: ARIGA.Katsuhiko@nims.go.jpK. Ariga Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 5‑1‑5 Kashiwanoha, Kashiwa, Chiba 277‑8561, Japanhttp://orcid.org/0000-0003-3085-9660http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2445-2955http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1007/s11051-026-06699-7&domain=pdf  J Nanopart Res          (2026) 28:175   175   Page 2 of 34Vol:. (1234567890)Nanoarchitectonics has emerged as a comprehensive concept that integrates these diverse approaches. Unlike conventional nanotechnology, which inter-prets nanoscale phenomena and manipulations in a unified context, nanoarchitectonics adopts a strategy of assembling fundamental units—such as atoms, molecules, and nanomaterials—to design and con-struct functional materials (Fig.  1) [2, 3]. Repre-senting a “post-nanotechnology” paradigm [4], it pursues multidisciplinary integration across chem-istry, physics, biology, and materials science. By flexibly combining atomic and molecular manipula-tion, physicochemical transformations, self-assem-bly/self-organization, utilization of external fields, macro and nanofabrication, and biochemical tech-niques according to specific objectives, nanoarchi-tectonics enables the creation of materials endowed with novel functionalities [5, 6].Such an integrative approach to material design offers significant advantages over traditional meth-ods based on single processes or equilibrium states, particularly in facilitating the formation of higher-order architectures such as asymmetric or hierar-chical structures [7]. Conversely, interactions at the nanoscale are often accompanied by uncertain-ties arising from thermal fluctuations and quantum effects, making it unlikely for functions to emerge as a simple sum of individual components [8]. Instead, these systems tend to exhibit harmonious and collec-tive behavior, resembling the coordinated operation of functional units in biological systems despite envi-ronmental noise or fluctuations. In this context, the ultimate objective of nanoarchitectonics can be seen as the creation of highly organized material systems that emulate the sophisticated functionality observed in living organisms [9].Fig. 1   Outline of the nanoarchitectonics conceptJ Nanopart Res          (2026) 28:175   Page 3 of 34    175 Vol.: (0123456789)The principles and framework of nanoarchitec-tonics possess a remarkable universality, remain-ing largely independent of the specific materials, targeted functionalities, or fields of application. In recent years, there has been a noticeable rise in publications explicitly invoking nanoarchitecton-ics, with research described by this term encom-passing a diverse range of topics. These include fundamental studies on material and structural con-trol [10–14], investigations of physical phenomena [15–17] and biochemical mechanisms [18–20], and extend to practical advances in areas such as energy [21–24] (including solar cells [25–27], fuel cells [28–30], batteries [31–33], and supercapaci-tors [34–36]), environmental remediation [37–39], catalysis [40–43], various device [44–46] and sen-sor technologies [47–49], as well as drug delivery [50–52] and biomedical applications [53–55]. Given that all matter is composed of atoms and molecules, the potential scope of this approach is exceptionally broad. Just as the “theory of everything” represents the ultimate pursuit in physics [56], nanoarchitec-tonics in materials science may be regarded as a “method for everything” [57–59]. At the same time, it signifies a bold challenge to replicate, within a relatively short timeframe, the sophisticated func-tional systems that living organisms have developed over the course of natural evolution—an endeavor that may be considered a “final frontier” of the field.Let us now consider the motivations behind the current demand for nanoarchitectonics, as well as the context in which it has emerged. Modern society faces a multitude of pressing challenges, the resolu-tion of which is increasingly reliant on the advance-ment of sophisticated functional materials. Acceler-ated progress in materials development is observed across a broad spectrum of fields, including energy conversion and storage such as fuel cells [60–62], batteries [63–65], and supercapacitors [66–68], environmental remediation [69–71], promotion of carbon neutrality [72–74], utilization of biomass [75–77], drug delivery [78–80], biosensing [81–83], medical technologies [84–86], and information devices [87–89] and sensors [90–93]. Although efforts in these various domains may appear inde-pendent at first glance, they are fundamentally con-nected through a common trajectory rooted in the quest for highly functional material systems.Human civilization initially progressed through the utilization of beneficial substances obtained from nature, gradually acquiring skills in processing and alloying these resources. However, with remarkable advancements in materials science during the twenti-eth century, humanity moved beyond reliance on nat-ural materials, achieving the ability to generate novel substances through systematic scientific principles and technological innovations. This transformative trend continues today, as deeper insights into struc-tures and phenomena, stemming from physics [94, 95], physical chemistry [96], and biology [97–99], are paralleled by ongoing progress in inorganic [100–102], organic [103–105], polymer [106–108], coordination [109–111], and biological chemistry [112–114], all of which remain central to technologi-cal innovation.Furthermore, the process of materials development has revealed that the properties and functionalities of substances are determined not only by their intrinsic characteristics but also by the significance of their nanostructures [115–117]. Materials with identical compositions can exhibit markedly different behaviors depending on their size and internal architecture, with the control of nanostructures, in particular, unlock-ing a wide array of novel functionalities. Phenomena such as size effects at the nanoscale, enhanced cata-lytic activity resulting from increased surface area per unit volume [118, 119], and dramatic improvements in energy and charge transport efficiencies achieved through the organization of nanodomains [120, 121] all underscore the central role of nanostructure con-trol in contemporary materials science. The full-scale emergence of this research area was made possible by nanotechnology, which has driven innovation in functional materials through the development of tech-niques for atomic- and molecular-level observation [122–124] and manipulation [125–127], as well as the analysis of nanoscale phenomena [128–130].What is now sought at the forefront of this progress is the emergence of a new, comprehensive concept that unifies structure creation through materials chem-istry with the precise control capabilities enabled by nanotechnology. This is embodied in nanoarchitec-tonics, heralded as a post-nanotechnology paradigm. Just as Richard Feynman’s visionary ideas paved the way for nanotechnology in the mid-twentieth cen-tury [131, 132], nanoarchitectonics was articulated in the early twenty-first century by Aono et al. [133,   J Nanopart Res          (2026) 28:175   175   Page 4 of 34Vol:. (1234567890)134]. This concept centers on the integrated assem-bly of fundamental components—atoms, molecules, and nanomaterials—to construct functional systems. While existing fields such as self-assembly in supra-molecular chemistry [135–137], the development of metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) [138–140], covalent organic frameworks (COFs) [141–143], mesoporous materials [144–146], and interface sci-ence techniques (including self-assembled monolay-ers (SAMs) [147–149], Langmuir–Blodgett (LB) method [150–152], and layer-by-layer (LbL) assem-bly [153–155]) have each followed their own evolu-tionary pathways, nanoarchitectonics has begun to encompass and unify these topics, fostering interdis-ciplinary breakthroughs. Much like nanotechnology once consolidated a diverse set of pioneering research directions into a major movement, nanoarchitectonics is now taking on the integrative role required for the next generation of materials innovation.As described above, nanoarchitectonics leverages structural control and organization at the nanoscale, integrating diverse technologies and expertise to impart entirely new functionalities to materials and devices. In the realm of nanoparticle development, this approach now enables advanced designs—such as hierarchical architectures, complex interfaces, core–shell and hollow morphologies—going beyond conventional control of composition, size, and shape [156–158]. These advancements hold the promise of significant performance improvements in diverse applications, including catalysis [159–161], sens-ing [162–164], energy devices [165–167], and bio-medicine [168–170]. Moreover, precise arrangement and hierarchical assembly of particle ensembles [171–173], surface modification [174, 175], and the integration of heterogeneous materials [176, 177] have facilitated the realization of sophisticated prop-erties such as molecular recognition and selective reactivity, while also making multifunctionality and synergistic effects more accessible. The introduction of self-organization and biomimetic strategies further enables the creation of sustainable and environmen-tally friendly materials, actively contributing to the realization of a more sustainable society.Accordingly, nanoarchitectonics offers significant advantages across multiple facets, including enhanced structural design freedom, performance optimization, multifunctionality, and improved sustainability for a wide array of functional nanoparticles. As such, it has become an essential foundational technology under-pinning cutting-edge materials development. In this review, we focus on several prototypical areas—syn-thesis and assembly, properties, applications in catal-ysis and energy, sensing and environmental fields, and biomedical uses—highlighting selected recent studies within each category to elucidate emerging trends. The intention is to discuss the unique contributions of nanoarchitectonics to the development of functional nanoparticles, rather than to provide a comprehen-sive overview of all state-of-the-art research in each domain. Based on the selected examples and their analysis, general tendencies are outlined. Finally, we discuss prospective directions required for future advances in nanoarchitectonics-driven nanoparticle research.Synthesis and assemblyThe concept of nanoarchitectonics has become increasingly important in both the fabrication of materials and the formation of their assemblies. Nanoarchitectonics involves the deliberate integration of atoms, molecules, and nanostructures to engineer materials with innovative properties and function-alities. These processes cover an extensive variety of sophisticated techniques, ranging from the precise manipulation and control of atoms and molecules to the physical alteration and reshaping of materials at different scales and the chemical conversion and transformation of substances through various reac-tions, including organic synthesis. Furthermore, the spectrum of processes also involves self-assembly and self-organization, whereby materials spontane-ously arrange themselves based on inherent proper-ties, as well as the use of external fields and forces to guide and control the orientation, structure, and arrangement of materials. Techniques such as nano-fabrication and microfabrication, which enable the creation of intricate structures at the nanoscale and microscale, are also encompassed, along with bio-chemical processes that involve the use of biological molecules and systems for material construction. In the realm of nanoarchitectonics, the construction of functional materials requires not only the careful and strategic selection of these diverse processes but also their effective integration and combination, allow-ing for the development of materials with advanced J Nanopart Res          (2026) 28:175   Page 5 of 34    175 Vol.: (0123456789)functionalities and tailored properties for specific applications.In this section, we focus on the creation of sub-stances, highlighting diverse applications and the emerging value of nanoarchitectonics through recent cutting-edge research examples. By comparing vari-ous studies, we provide an overview of how structural design at the nanoscale contributes to the maximiza-tion of material performance and the development of entirely new functionalities.Xian et  al. prepared ultrafine platinum nanoparti-cles (Pt/Co-N-C) by irradiating a mixture of Co-N-C and K2[PtCl4] with near-ultraviolet light at 395  nm as well as visible light at 450 nm and 550 nm, with-out the addition of any reducing or stabilizing agents, employing a MOF-modified carbon material (Co-N-C) as the support (Fig. 2) [178]. The Pt nanoparticles were uniformly dispersed on the Co-N-C surface, with particle sizes ranging from 2.39 to 3.53 nm. In the reduction of 4-nitrophenol, the catalyst synthe-sized under 395  nm near-UV light (Pt/Co-N-C-1) exhibited the highest catalytic activity, maintaining approximately 90% conversion even after five cycles, thereby demonstrating good recyclability. The use of 395  nm light favored adjustment of the platinum species distribution during the reaction, promoted the formation of smaller platinum nanocrystals, and contributed to the generation of highly active catalysts. This methodology suggests potential for green synthesis routes as well as the preparation of single-atom and subnanocluster catalysts. The use of MOF-modified carbon supports and precise pho-tochemical synthesis of ultrafine Pt nanoparticles in this study exemplifies a nanoarchitectonics approach, wherein functional materials are constructed from the nanoscale upwards. Nanoarchitectonics enables the precise design of structures at the atomic and molecular levels, offering control over nanoparticle dispersion, size, and surface characteristics, thereby realizing high-performance materials. From this per-spective, the technique described in this paper embod-ies key principles of nanoarchitectonics, including solvent-free and stabilizer-free green processing, controlled nanoparticle sizing, and synergistic effects with the support. As a result, the method facilitates the design of highly active and durable catalysts, ena-bles applications in single-atom and subnanocluster systems, and contributes to the advancement of envi-ronmentally friendly synthesis and novel functional materials.The development of high-entropy materials has attracted significant attention due to their exceptional properties and numerous advantages. Nevertheless, achieving nanoscale morphological control in these multielement systems presents substantial challenges owing to their structural complexity. Yagi et  al. successfully synthesized compositionally diverse mesoporous high-entropy materials, containing ele-ments up to Ir, through a wet-chemical reduction method combined with selenium incorporation [179]. Fig. 2   Synthetic scheme for ultrafine platinum nanoparticles (Pt/Co-N-C) by irradiating a mixture of Co-N-C and K2[PtCl4], employing a MOF-modified carbon material (Co-N-C) as the support and TEM images. Reprinted with permission from Ref. 178 Copyright 2025 Oxford University Press  J Nanopart Res          (2026) 28:175   175   Page 6 of 34Vol:. (1234567890)The introduction of polymer micelles facilitated the formation of uniform porous structures, while tun-ing the selenium content allowed for precise control over Ir incorporation and the overall mixing entropy. During the reduction process, metallic and selenium ions were reduced and aggregated, with the poly-mer micelles guiding the development of mesoscale porosity. It was observed that Ir content within the high-entropy materials increased in tandem with sele-nium proportion, resulting in higher mixing entropy. This approach yielded homogeneous elemental dis-tribution and consistent mesoporous structures, sug-gesting promising new pathways for applications such as catalysis. The design of nanoscale porosity using polymer micelles and the multielemental con-trol enabled by selenium incorporation represent quintessential examples of precise structural tuning and functional realization through nanoarchitecton-ics. This strategy enables the integration of features such as porosity, compositional uniformity, and high entropy at the nanoscale, leading to the emergence of advanced functionalities—such as novel catalytic properties—not achievable with conventional materi-als. Nanoarchitectonics, therefore, plays a pivotal role in uniting practicality and innovation within materials science.Tajikawa et  al. demonstrated that the selective addition of small amounts of isobutyl- or phenyl-substituted four-leaf clover-shaped cage silsesquiox-ane derivatives to poly(methyl methacrylate) enables either surface segregation or enhancement of bulk properties [180]. The C3- and C4-linked isobutyl- and phenyl-substituted four-leaf clover-shaped cage silses-quioxane derivatives were synthesized by hydrosilyla-tion of the corresponding monoallyl- and monohex-enyl-polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane (POSS), double-decker silsesquioxane, and poly(methyl meth-acrylate). Isobutyl-substituted POSS exhibited sur-face segregation in poly(methyl methacrylate) films, resulting in high water contact angles and maintained optical transparency. In contrast, phenyl-substituted POSS remained dispersed within the polymer matrix, increasing the glass transition temperature (Tg) of the polymer but rendering the film semitransparent. Fur-ther research is needed to optimize surface segrega-tion and bulk property improvements, including the impact of processing conditions. This study provides a concrete illustration of the nanoarchitectonics con-cept, wherein structure is designed at the nanoscale to create novel functional materials. The choice of sub-stituents and linkage modes in the POSS molecules has a direct impact on surface segregation behavior and bulk characteristics. Molecular arrangement and aggregation states at the nanometric level produce significant changes in film properties. Precise molec-ular design and assembly control through nanoarchi-tectonics enhance surface characteristics and physical properties of resin materials, facilitating the develop-ment of optimized functional materials for various applications.In their paper titled “Membrane Nanoarchitecton-ics with Non-Ionic Surfactants and Nanoparticles,” Costa et  al. investigated the behavior of bilayer sys-tems formed by doping a nonionic surfactant (Simul-sol M45) and 1% Laponite solution [181]. Structural analysis of these nanosystems using small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) revealed that when the lamellar spacing exceeds the thickness of the nano-particles, Laponite nanodisks can be incorporated into the bilayer, and lamellar phases are present across the entire range of surfactant concentrations. Structure factor and electron density data further demonstrated that the incorporation of Laponite nan-oparticles into the lipid bilayers significantly affects the system’s structural properties, with both bilayer thickness and lamellar periodicity modulated by sur-factant concentration. This system shows promise for practical applications such as water purification and drug delivery, and future work will focus on detailed investigations of particle organization under varying conditions such as temperature and additives. This research exemplifies the nanoarchitectonics approach by employing precise structural control over compos-ites built from Laponite nanoparticles and surfactants. The insertion of nanoparticles into bilayers and the tunability of lamellar periodicity and thickness at the nanoscale result in emergent functional proper-ties, paving the way for advanced applications in drug delivery and water treatment. The nanoarchitectonics concept enables the self-organization of nanomateri-als and the realization of their functionalities, while the optimization of processing conditions further contributes to the creation of sustainable, high-perfor-mance materials.As illustrated by the above examples, nano-architectonics is an innovative concept that enables the rational creation of novel functional materials through the precise design and arrangement of atoms, J Nanopart Res          (2026) 28:175   Page 7 of 34    175 Vol.: (0123456789)molecules, and nanoparticles. For instance, the utili-zation of MOF-modified carbon (Co-N-C) allowed for the uniform and ultrafine dispersion of platinum nanoparticles via simple light irradiation, achiev-ing green synthesis without the need for reducing or stabilizing agents. The integration of wet-chemical techniques with selenium incorporation and polymer micelles facilitated the nanoscale formation of high-entropy, multielement, and mesoporous structures, laying the groundwork for next-generation functional materials such as advanced catalysts. Through molec-ular design, selective control over surface segregation and bulk properties of POSS derivatives was accom-plished, enabling optimization of material function-alities. SAXS analysis was employed to precisely control composite structures comprising nanoparti-cles and surfactants, resulting in the development of bilayer functional materials. These cases demonstrate that nanoarchitectonics makes possible the sophisti-cated integration of structural design, material per-formance, and environmentally conscious synthesis, thereby assuming a vital role in the development of next-generation high-performance materials and the realization of a sustainable society.PropertiesAdvancement in materials science based on nano-architectonics fundamentally relies on detailed characterization and analysis of material proper-ties. This is especially critical for materials at the atomic and molecular level, such as nanoparticles and nanoclusters, whose properties can change dras-tically in response to minor structural modifications and environmental influences. Consequently, prop-erty analysis not only elucidates the mechanisms by which materials exhibit specific functionalities but also serves as a crucial foundation for the design and application of novel, high-performance materials. In this section, we provide an overview of state-of-the-art property characterization techniques for nanopar-ticle assemblies and metal nanoclusters, highlighting their significance and value.The properties and underlying principles of self-organized nanoparticle assemblies have attracted considerable interest. For example, Zbonikowski et  al., in their paper titled “Langmuir Nanoarchitec-tonics of Thermoresponsive Adaptive System of PNIPAM-Decorated Nanoparticles,” revealed that the self-organization of poly(N-isopropylacrylamide)-coated iron oxide–silica nanoparticles at the air–water interface can be significantly modulated by ionic strength (Fig.  3) [182]. Upon the addition of KCl, the interparticle distance increased, indicating that effects arising from ionic clouds and osmotic pres-sure—distinct from conventional electrostatic screen-ing—governed the aggregation and membrane for-mation of the particles. Their observations showed that the potential of interparticle interactions shifted to longer distances, with short-range repulsion being active at much larger separations compared to pure water. At the same time, the minimum of the long-range attractive potential became deeper than that in water, and “drifting ice-like” aggregates were visu-alized by Brewster angle microscopy. According to the Derjaguin–Landau–Verwey–Overbeek (DLVO) theory, the introduction of ions should shorten inter-action distances through electrostatic screening; how-ever, the experiments revealed the opposite trend. The Fig. 3   Self-organization of poly(N-isopropylacrylamide)-coated iron oxide–silica nanoparticles at the air–water interface modulated by ionic strength and temperature. Reproduced under terms of the CC-BY license from Ref. 182, 2025 American Chemical Society  J Nanopart Res          (2026) 28:175   175   Page 8 of 34Vol:. (1234567890)authors propose that locally concentrated excess ions induce water influx, thereby increasing osmotic pres-sure and generating long-range repulsive forces. For PSiFe nanoparticles at the KCl solution surface, the accumulation of excess ions at the interface led to an imbalance in ion distribution between surface and bulk, ultimately expanding the interparticle distance via osmotic effects. This striking phenomenon sug-gests new opportunities for designing stimuli-respon-sive materials and smart surfaces, presenting a novel strategy for controlling the organization of nanoparti-cle assemblies. This work exemplifies the nanoarchi-tectonics approach, where interfacial organization and interactions of nanoparticles are actively manipu-lated through environmental parameters such as ionic strength and temperature. The design of nanoparti-cle coatings and ionic environments enables precise adjustment of interparticle distances and aggregation states, embodying the essential value of nanoarchitec-tonics: the construction of nanoscale architectures for tailored function. As a result, these principles can be applied to the development of environmentally adap-tive, high-performance materials and smart coatings, underlining the importance of bottom-up nanoscale design in advanced materials science.Metal nanoclusters possess atomically precise structures and quantum-confined electronic states, exhibiting unique photophysical properties that arise from electronic transitions between discrete energy levels. While their structural behavior in the ground state has been widely investigated, many aspects of their excited-state dynamics remain elusive. These dynamics include relaxation pathways, structural transformations, and the spatial distribution of exci-tons. In a recent review, Ishii and Nakashima com-prehensively demonstrated that the excited-state dynamics of metal nanoclusters are highly sensitive to factors such as composition, surface structure, sol-vent, and the surrounding ionic environment [183]. Notably, they showcased how the dynamic interac-tions of counter ions in the excited state can modu-late energy levels, spatial localization, and chiropti-cal activity. Even minimal changes in structure or environment can alter key excited-state relaxation processes—including intersystem crossing, internal conversion, and photoluminescence—enabling fine-tuning of excitation energy, lifetimes, spatial locali-zation, and coupling with vibrational modes. Recent findings highlight that dynamic interactions between the nanocluster core and counter ions can efficiently regulate the energy and distribution of excited states, not only via static modifications of composition or structure but also through dynamic processes occur-ring within the excited-state lifetime. Leveraging the ionic nature of nanoclusters and the long-lived triplet states, it is possible to design the energy and localization of excited states to respond to exter-nal ionic stimuli. Such dynamic strategies introduce a new paradigm for the design of photophysical and chiroptical functionalities in nanocluster materi-als. This knowledge expands the design toolbox for advanced optofunctional nanocluster materials, demonstrating that both static structural tuning and dynamic environmental modulation are effective for advanced functionality. The insights provided in this review exemplify how nanoarchitectonics enables atomic- and ionic-level manipulation of structure and environment, facilitating precise control over the excited-state properties and functionalities of metal nanoclusters. The design of photophysical properties and chiral activity through dynamic ion interactions and subtle structural adjustments is directly aligned with the nanoarchitectonics philosophy of creating function from the molecular and nanoscale. Incorpo-rating dynamic responsiveness into material design is anticipated to drive the future development of sophis-ticated, multifunctional, light-responsive nanomateri-als in materials science.Geometry and topology endow mechanical frames with remarkable properties, from shape morphing to phonon manipulation, that can drive innovative tech-nologies. However, while significant progress has been made in the study of macroscopic frames, real-izing mechanical metamaterials and phonon imaging at the nanoscale has remained challenging. Qian et al. extended topological mechanical frame principles to self-assembled nanoparticle lattices and, using liq-uid-phase transmission electron microscopy (TEM), elucidated the phonon dynamics at this scale (Fig. 4) [184]. In this work, the principles of topology-designed mechanical frames were applied to nano-particle self-assembled lattices, enabling direct meas-urement of phonon band structures, nanoscale spring constants, and lattice deformation pathways via liquid-phase TEM. Maxwell lattices, characterized by perfect hinges that constrain longitudinal motion while preserving rotational freedom, were achieved using anisotropic gold nanocubes. The study revealed J Nanopart Res          (2026) 28:175   Page 9 of 34    175 Vol.: (0123456789)control over phonon modes and lattice reconstruction within Maxwell lattices and underscored the crucial roles of many-body and non-nearest-neighbor interac-tions. By engineering nanoparticle shape, size, organ-ization, and interactions, the phononic properties can be finely tuned, opening avenues for next-generation functional materials in areas such as acoustic wave manipulation, imaging, and memory storage. This review embodies the concept of nanoarchitecton-ics—realizing structural design through nanoparti-cle self-assembly paired with nanoscale control of mechanical properties and phonon behavior. Precise manipulation of lattice geometry and interactions at the particle level, including topology and many-body effects, enables the creation of new functionalities. Nanoarchitectonics-driven structural engineering thus offers a versatile platform for designing acoustic, mechanical, and information-processing materials, making significant contributions to unexplored direc-tions in nanoscale functional materials.As illustrated by the above examples, the signifi-cance of nanoarchitectonics and property analysis is becoming increasingly pronounced. In structures formed by the self-assembly of nanoparticles, inter-particle interactions and interfacial phenomena play a decisive role in determining material properties and Fig. 4   Topological mechanical frame principles to self-assem-bled nanoparticle lattices: Maxwell lattices, characterized by perfect hinges that constrain longitudinal motion while pre-serving rotational freedom, filled with gold nanocubes (top) and time-lapse images using liquid-phase transmission electron microscopy (bottom). Reprinted with permission from Ref. 184 Copyright 2025 Springer-Nature  J Nanopart Res          (2026) 28:175   175   Page 10 of 34Vol:. (1234567890)serve as a foundation for new material design. For instance, interface control in self-assembled nano-particle systems enables fine-tuning of interparticle distances and aggregation states through the design of ionic environments and surface coatings, directly enabling advances in stimuli-responsive materials and smart surfaces. Furthermore, in metal nanoclusters, recent reports demonstrate that, beyond static struc-tural modification, sophisticated control of excited-state dynamics and photophysical properties can be achieved through dynamic environmental responses and ion interactions—making molecular- and ionic-level property analysis indispensable for function-driven design. The application of geometric and topological design to nanoparticle lattices also allows precise control over phonon modes and lattice defor-mation pathways, paving the way for next-generation mechanical and acoustic materials. Collectively, these cases make it evident that the integration of precise structural design and advanced property analysis based on nanoarchitectonics is key to creating func-tional materials and enabling novel technological developments.Catalyst to energyIn modern society, catalytic functionalities are central to enhancing the efficiency of chemical reactions and underpinning energy conversion technologies, whose importance continues to grow. Achieving a sustain-able society requires highly efficient and environ-mentally friendly energy conversion and resource-cir-culating chemical processes—both of which depend fundamentally on functional catalysts. Improvements in catalytic performance, stability, and selectivity are directly linked to technological breakthroughs across a wide spectrum of energy applications, including biomass conversion, carbon dioxide reduction, and hydrogen production. This section introduces the lat-est advances in catalyst design and energy-related applications enabled by nanoarchitectonics-based approaches.Low-polymerized Zr–O–Zr units within hydrated zirconia (ZrO2(H)) exhibit exceptionally high activity for the catalytic transfer hydrogenation of furfural to furfuryl alcohol. However, during the catalytic reac-tion, dehydration among Zr–OH groups leads to the formation of more highly polymerized structures, resulting in the deactivation of ZrO2(H). Zhang et al. demonstrated that a hybrid network structure com-posed of biomass-derived carbon quantum dots and ZrCl4-derived zirconia sol nanoparticles (2–5  nm) can be readily synthesized under mild dehydration conditions at low cost, utilizing these components as primary structural units [185]. Due to the enhanced Lewis acidity and stability of both Zr–O–Zr and Zr–O–C species, the proposed biomass carbon quan-tum dot–Zr network catalyst exhibited remarkable efficiency and stability for catalytic transfer hydrogen-ation in isopropanol, achieving up to 99.9% furfural conversion and 98.4% furfuryl alcohol yield under optimized conditions and maintaining high activity and selectivity even after five cycles. The raw mate-rials are inexpensive and readily available, enabling scalable and cost-effective catalyst production, while also demonstrating resourceful utilization of biomass waste and advancing the development of high-perfor-mance catalysts. This study leverages the nanoarchi-tectonics concept by precisely assembling carbon quantum dots and zirconia nanoparticles to maximize catalytic performance. Structural control and interac-tion design provided by biomass carbon quantum dots enable stabilization of low-polymeric Zr–O–Zr spe-cies, formation of highly active sites, and suppression of side reactions—hallmarks of a nanoarchitecton-ics approach. Nanostructuring of waste biomass into functional materials leads to the creation of highly efficient, selective, and durable catalysts, marking a significant contribution to both materials science and green chemistry for sustainable applications.The exploration of paramagnetic metal nanoparti-cles with atomic-level precision remains challenging due to difficulties in synthesis, which has hindered detailed studies of their paramagnetic properties. Bian et  al. successfully achieved the precise synthe-sis and structural control of large paramagnetic gold nanoclusters using a thiol–iodine mixed-ligand meth-odology (Fig.  5) [186]. Their work demonstrated sequential control over magnetic states—via single-atom removal and oxidation—while revealing that surface spins are primarily localized on iodine atoms. Utilizing a thiol–iodine mixed-ligand protection strategy, they synthesized a multivalent shell struc-ture: the paramagnetic [Au127I4(TBBT)48] (I = iodine, TBBT = 4-tert-butylphenylthiolate). The central gold atom could be selectively removed via thiol derivati-zation without collapsing the framework. Alterations J Nanopart Res          (2026) 28:175   Page 11 of 34    175 Vol.: (0123456789)in the local ligand arrangement (the “butterfly effect”) enabled conversion from paramagnetic to diamag-netic Au126I4(TBBT)48, and further oxidation with H2O2 produced paramagnetic [Au126I4(TBBT)48]+. Structural modifications and electronic state control also allowed for tunable CO2 electrocatalytic activity, highlighting a new approach to the design of magnetic and catalytic functions in nanoparticles. This study leverages nanoarchitectonics by enabling atomic- and electronic-level structural manipulation of gold nano-clusters to precisely tune their magnetic and catalytic properties. This includes ligand design for surface spin localization, atomically precise restructuring, and continuous property modulation through redox operations—all direct realizations of function crea-tion from the molecular and nanoscale as envisioned by nanoarchitectonics. The capacity for free design of nanostructure and structure–property correlations makes a significant contribution to the development of high-value-added catalysts and magnetic materials.Kiguchi et al. developed nanoscale magnetic pho-tocatalysts (nano TiO2–SiO2/Fe3O4) with particle sizes of approximately 20  nm and applied them to efficient water treatment [187]. These magnetic nano-photocatalysts exhibited performance and stability comparable to commercial P25 photocatalysts, while enabling easy recovery from aqueous media via mag-netic separation. The photocatalyst was employed for the photoinactivation of Lactobacillus casei (L. casei) as well as for the degradation of recalcitrant herbi-cides (simetryn, prometryn, metolachlor, and sulfo-sulfuron-methyl). L. casei, a Gram-positive bacterium lacking an outer membrane, was adopted as a model organism for photocatalytic antimicrobial evaluation; Fig. 5   Precise synthesis and structural control of large para-magnetic gold nanoclusters ([Au127I4(TBBT)48] (I = iodine, TBBT = 4-tert-butylphenylthiolate)) using a thiol–iodine mixed-ligand methodology through sequential control over magnetic states via single-atom removal and oxidation. Reprinted with permission from Ref. 186 Copyright 2025 AAAS  J Nanopart Res          (2026) 28:175   175   Page 12 of 34Vol:. (1234567890)complete sterilization was achieved within 50  min of UV irradiation, showing a simpler reaction profile compared to conventional Gram-negative models. The photocatalyst was also highly effective against the four herbicides, reducing their concentrations from 10 ppm to below 1 ppm within 120 min. These results underscore the potential of the nanocatalyst for large-scale water purification in the food and agri-cultural industries. In this study, the nanoarchitec-tonics framework enabled the simultaneous resolu-tion of multiple challenges—including photocatalyst functionality, separability, and stability—through the rational design and assembly of nanoparticles. Integrating TiO2–SiO2 and Fe3O4 at the nanoscale imparted high catalytic efficiency, magnetic recovera-bility, and long-term stability. The precise design and self-organization of nanoparticles for multifunctional-ity exemplifies the power of nanoarchitectonics in the development of sustainable water purification materi-als, making substantial contributions to environmen-tal and food safety.Introducing OH interaction sites to accelerate water dissociation increases hydrogen coverage on the active surface, thereby promoting hydrogen spillover and enhancing the overall hydrogen evolution reac-tion (HER). While homologous nanometallic single-atom catalysts combining single atoms and nanometal particles have been developed, the synthesis of heter-ogeneous nanometallic single-atom catalysts remains challenging. For HER catalysts under alkaline condi-tions, ideal architectures require a synergistic effect between nonnoble metal nanoparticles with strong oxygen affinity and noble metal single atoms (SAs) with favorable hydrogen binding energies. Xu et  al. developed a nanoparticle catalyst by encapsulating Co nanoparticles and Pt single atoms within N-doped hollow polyhedral carbon via a straightforward pyrolysis–encapsulation route (Fig.  6) [188]. This catalyst exhibited high activity and stability for the HER under alkaline conditions. The Co nanoparticles function as H-pumps, promoting hydrogen spillover to the Pt single-atom sites (from the C site → C–Pt bridge → Pt site), thereby boosting overall efficiency. This method offers practical prospects for the rational design of catalysts with tunable metal species and architectures. This study exemplifies the nanoarchi-tectonics approach by enabling precise structural and spatial control over Co nanoparticles and Pt single Fig. 6   A nanoparticle catalyst by encapsulating Co nanopar-ticles and Pt single atoms within N-doped hollow polyhedral carbon exhibiting high activity and stability for the HER under alkaline conditions. Reprinted with permission from Ref. 188 Copyright 2025 Wiley-VCHJ Nanopart Res          (2026) 28:175   Page 13 of 34    175 Vol.: (0123456789)atoms at the nanoscale to design and optimize chemi-cal reaction pathways and functionalities. The com-posite arrangement and interaction modulation at the nanoscale facilitate efficient water dissociation and hydrogen transfer, representing a paradigmatic case of catalytic function creation via nanoarchitectonics. Precise tuning of metal species, size, and arrangement greatly contributes to the development of new, high-efficiency catalysts and sustainable energy materials.In water electrolysis, nanoscale structural design of electrocatalysts and their supports is crucial for enhancing catalytic efficiency through overpo-tential reduction. Platinum (Pt), widely used as a cathodic catalyst for the HER, is costly, and thus, core–shell structures are often employed to minimize the required amount. Traditionally, Pt nanoparticles with diameters of 1–2  nm are uniformly dispersed on carbon black supports, forming typical core–shell architectures. Core–shell catalysts have been exten-sively studied, and various systematic modifications have been developed and evaluated. Notably, Park et  al. proposed a reverse configuration—shell–core structures—where the catalyst serves as the core and the support as the shell. In their study, iridium (Ir) nanoparticles were encapsulated as the core by a mesoporous carbon shell, achieving comparable or superior HER performance to conventional catalysts with Ir contents of less than 1 wt% [189]. Unlike the conventional catalyst core/support shell paradigm, this inverted structure proved highly effective. The excellent dispersion of Ir nanoparticles and the high specific surface area contributed to the high effi-ciency, presenting a new design guideline for reduc-ing the consumption of precious platinum-group met-als while maintaining high catalytic performance. This work also underscores the importance of nano-architectonics. Precise nanoscale control over Ir nan-oparticle size, dispersion, and spatial arrangement within the mesoporous carbon shell simultaneously optimizes catalytic activity and drastically reduces noble metal usage. Such precision in structural design and organization—enabled by nanoarchitectonics—affords tunability of active surface area, electronic conductivity, and interparticle interactions, open-ing new avenues for the development of sustainable, high-efficiency electrocatalyst materials.In their paper titled “Nanoarchitectonics with Thiolate-Protected Ultrasmall Platinum Nanoclus-ters,” Shahul and Pandurangan reported the synthesis of ultrasmall platinum nanoclusters (Pt-NCs), each protected with one of three thiols—3-mercaptopro-pane sulfonic acid (MPS), 3-mercaptopropionic acid (MPA), and glutathione (GSH)—via a simple chemi-cal reduction method [190]. Each thiolate-protected Pt nanocluster (Pt-MPS, Pt-MPA, and Pt-GSH) was syn-thesized successfully with precise atomic-level thiol protection, yielding sizes ranging from 1.2 to 4 nm. When incorporated into an ionic liquid matrix, these Pt nanoclusters exhibited high specific capacitance, enhanced stability, and excellent supercapacitive per-formance. Compared to conventional materials, these nanoclusters delivered superior performance and show promise for various energy storage applications. From the perspective of nanoarchitectonics, this study demonstrates that precise nanocluster design—such as careful choice of thiol and nanoscale size con-trol—combined with integration into ionic liquid matrices can dramatically improve electrochemical properties and stability. Atomic-level surface protec-tion and interface engineering are directly linked to the development of high-performance capacitive functions, providing an exemplary case of advanced energy material design and the expansion of applica-tion possibilities enabled by nanoarchitectonics.As demonstrated by the above examples, nano-architectonics has made significant contributions to the advancement of energy applications by maximiz-ing catalytic functionality through precise molecu-lar- and nanoscale structural design and assembly. For instance, hybrid catalysts composed of biomass-derived carbon quantum dots and zirconia nanopar-ticles have achieved exceptionally high efficiency and durability in biomass conversion reactions by stabilizing catalytic sites and suppressing side reac-tions—capabilities enabled by nanoarchitectonics. In paramagnetic gold nanoclusters, ligand engineer-ing and atomic-level rearrangement provide precise control over properties such as magnetism and CO2 reduction activity, paving the way for the develop-ment of novel, high-performance catalysts. Further, in studies involving magnetic nanophotocatalysts, multimetallic single-atom catalysts, and shell–core-type electrocatalysts, the design of nanoscale struc-ture, spatial arrangement, and heterogeneous material combinations has resulted in remarkable improve-ments in reaction efficiency, selectivity, material cost reduction, separability, and capacitance. These advances provide new design strategies and expanded   J Nanopart Res          (2026) 28:175   175   Page 14 of 34Vol:. (1234567890)applications for the development of high-efficiency, multifunctional catalytic materials—essential for sus-tainable energy production and resource recycling.Sensing to environmentThe importance of sensing technologies that sup-port environmental preservation and safe, secure liv-ing is steadily increasing. With the diversification of industrial activities and living environments, there is a growing demand for the rapid assurance of food safety, water purification, and solutions to energy-related challenges. Addressing these issues neces-sitates the development of advanced material design and highly sensitive sensing technologies based on nanotechnology. In particular, the creation of new materials through nanoarchitectonics—precise struc-tural control at the molecular and nanoscale—holds great promise for enhancing the performance of func-tional materials and achieving a sustainable society. This section presents recent trends in nanomaterials research from this perspective.Aggregation-induced emission enhancement (AIEE) of metal nanoclusters has enabled numerous applications, including food safety monitoring. How-ever, the controlled synthesis of monodisperse metal nanocluster supraparticles exhibiting AIEE properties remains challenging. In their paper, “Supraparticle Nanoarchitectonics with Bright Gold Nanoclusters,” Li et  al. reported a facile method for synthesizing gold nanocluster supraparticles (CB[n]/AuNCs) with AIEE properties via host–guest recognition involving cucurbit[n]uril (CB[n], n = 7 and 8) and ATT mol-ecules, specifically for food safety monitoring appli-cations (Fig.  7) [191]. The resulting supraparticles exhibited significantly enhanced emission intensity and quantum efficiency (up to 52%), as well as sen-sitive response to pH and ammonia. These proper-ties enabled their application in paper-based sensors for meat freshness determination. Utilizing this sys-tem, highly sensitive fluorescence turn-on detection of ammonia (detection limit 0.2 ppm) was achieved, and a fluorescent turn-on paper sensor was success-fully fabricated for monitoring meat freshness. This approach offers a facile, controllable, and biocompat-ible synthetic strategy for AIEE-active metal nano-clusters, establishing a foundation for expanded per-formance and application potential. The host–guest recognition-based supraparticle strategy contributes both to enhanced fluorescent materials and their broad applicability. This research harnesses the nano-architectonics framework; surface ligand design and precise control over nanocluster aggregation states are achieved through host–guest interactions with cyclic compounds, resulting in efficient fluorescence performance and environmental responsiveness. This advanced nanoarchitectonics application illus-trates how molecular recognition and supramolecu-lar assembly at the nanoscale can create new sens-ing materials and enable novel developments in food safety monitoring.Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a universal bio-marker of cellular metabolism, and there is increas-ing demand for rapid and reliable point-of-care test-ing (POCT). However, conventional colorimetric biosensors often suffer from insufficient sensitiv-ity and operational instability. In their paper “MOF Nanoarchitectonics for Ultrasensitive Point-of-Care Detection,” Jin et al. developed a high-sensitivity bio-sensor by integrating ultrasmall Pt nanozymes into an ATP-responsive MOF surface layer through pro-tein-template synthesis and biomimetic MOF design (Fig.  8) [192]. Upon ATP stimulation, the MOF matrix disassembles, releasing the Pt nanozyme and generating a strong colorimetric signal. This sensor addresses major limitations in ATP diagnostics by combining nano-bio-interfacial engineering with the biomimetic mineralization of MOFs and nanozyme catalysts. The Pt nanoclusters were synthesized and stabilized at room temperature using glucose oxi-dase as a template, achieving ultrasmall particle sizes (2.30 ± 0.52  nm) and suppressed aggregation, thereby ensuring a high density of catalytic active sites. Consequently, the oxidase-like activity of the Pt nanozyme was about four times higher than conven-tional products. These nanozymes were directionally immobilized within an ATP-degradable MOF layer, allowing ATP-specific nanoprobes to be prepared. Upon ATP stimulation, the MOF matrix breaks down, releasing the Pt nanozyme, which elicits a turn-on colorimetric response through enhanced oxidase-like catalytic reactions. This platform achieves ATP detection with a wide working range and an ultralow detection limit (0.062  μM), making practical ATP POCT diagnosis possible and laying the groundwork for next-generation multifunctional biosensors. This study exemplifies the nanoarchitectonics approach, J Nanopart Res          (2026) 28:175   Page 15 of 34    175 Vol.: (0123456789)where Pt nanocluster catalysts and MOF structures are precisely designed and integrated on the molecu-lar and nanoscales to achieve highly functional, sta-ble, and responsive biosensors. The protein-templated synthesis of nanozymes, MOF-derived surface con-trol, and stimuli-responsive interfacial engineering are representative outcomes of nanoarchitecton-ics, demonstrating significant contributions to solv-ing real-world challenges in clinical diagnostics and beyond.Transition metal chromite nanoparticles are promising multifunctional materials for energy and environmental applications, owing to their tun-able physicochemical properties. In their study titled “Nanoarchitectonics of ZnCr2O4 Nanoparticles,” Chakraborty and Jeevanandam reported a facile thermal decomposition method for the synthesis of ZnCr2O4 nanoparticles. Through this approach, vari-ous morphologies—including raspberry-like, porous, and hexagonal forms—can be achieved by simply adjusting the synthesis conditions [193]. Comprehen-sive characterization of composition, purity, magnetic properties, and photocatalytic activity was performed. The ZnCr2O4 nanoparticles were evaluated for photo-catalytic removal of the toxic dye Amido Black 10B in water. Notably, the mixed-solvent method yielded the highest photocatalytic efficiency (94%) and larg-est surface area, with the catalytic activity shown to be morphology-dependent. Tailoring morphology and properties in this way broadens the material’s applicability for energy and environmental solutions. The described methodology is also adaptable to the Fig. 7   Preparation of gold nanocluster supraparticles (CB[n]/AuNCs) with aggregation-induced emission enhancement (AIEE) properties via host–guest recognition involving cucurbit[n]uril (CB[n], n = 7 and 8) and ATT molecules, use-ful as fluorescent turn-on paper sensor with sensitive response to pH and ammonia. Reprinted with permission from Ref. 191 Copyright 2025 American Chemical Society  J Nanopart Res          (2026) 28:175   175   Page 16 of 34Vol:. (1234567890)synthesis of other composite metal oxide nanoma-terials. This research is rooted in the principles of nanoarchitectonics, enabling the precise design and optimization of nanoparticle properties and func-tions through controlled structural and morphologi-cal manipulation (such as solvent condition tuning). By adjusting the size, shape, and surface structure of ZnCr2O4 nanoparticles on the nanoscale, their photo-catalytic and magnetic properties can be finely tuned, facilitating the creation of advanced materials for energy and environmental applications. This func-tion-by-nanostructure approach makes a substantial contribution to the development of sustainable, high-performance, and versatile materials.Electrochemical deionization (EDI) is a highly promising next-generation water treatment technol-ogy. Bismuth (Bi), with its high capacity and Cl⁻ selectivity, shows great potential as an anode mate-rial for EDI; however, severe volume expansion and pulverization lead to drastic deterioration in cycle performance. In their study entitled “Carbon Nano-architectonics with Bi Nanoparticle,” Wang et  al. reported a straightforward thermal decomposition method using a Bi-based MOF precursor to synthe-size Bi@C nanocomposites, where Bi nanoparti-cles are uniformly encapsulated within carbon layers (Fig. 9) [194]. The strong Bi–O–C interactions rein-force the interface between Bi and carbon, while the carbon encapsulation effectively buffers the stress from volume expansion. Consequently, this structure overcomes issues of expansion and pulverization, providing structural protection and enhanced con-ductivity via the carbon framework. Thanks to these advantages, the Bi@C composite demonstrated out-standing electrochemical capacitance. When used as an EDI anode paired with an activated carbon cath-ode, the material exhibited a Cl⁻ removal capacity of 133.5  mg/g. After 100 cycles, the Bi@C electrode retained 71.8% of its initial capacity—substantially outperforming a pure Bi electrode, which retained only 26.3%. These results underline the effectiveness of this structure as a design guideline for next-genera-tion EDI electrode materials. Rooted in the principles of nanoarchitectonics, this study achieves long-term Fig. 8   Preparation of a high-sensitivity biosensor by integrat-ing ultrasmall Pt nanozymes into an ATP-responsive MOF sur-face layer through protein-template synthesis and biomimetic MOF design. Reprinted with permission from Ref. 192 Copy-right 2025 American Chemical SocietyJ Nanopart Res          (2026) 28:175   Page 17 of 34    175 Vol.: (0123456789)functionality through precise spatial arrangement of Bi nanoparticles and their integration with a carbon framework. This approach optimizes performance through nanoscale structural engineering and materi-als design, exemplifying typical outcomes of nano-architectonics—including the mitigation of volume changes and efficient ion removal—thereby making substantial contributions to the practical advancement of water treatment materials.As illustrated by the examples presented in this section, the concept of nanoarchitectonics plays a crucial role in both sensing technologies and address-ing environmental challenges. For instance, tech-niques that enable molecular-level control over the luminescence properties of metal nanoclusters have markedly advanced food safety measures, such as freshness monitoring and highly sensitive ammonia detection. Furthermore, functional materials designed at the nanoscale have been applied to the rapid and sensitive detection of biomarkers like ATP, as well as in the development of multifunctional biosensors for clinical environments. These achievements represent the outcomes of nanoarchitectonics, wherein the pre-cise design of molecular and nanoparticle structures maximizes their intrinsic properties and responsive-ness. In the environmental field, the rational design of nanomaterials—such as metal oxide nanoparticles and Bi-based nanocomposites—has made significant contributions to water purification technologies and the creation of sustainable energy materials. Such Fig. 9   A thermal decomposition method using a Bi-based MOF precursor to synthesize Bi@C nanocomposites, where Bi nanoparticles are uniformly encapsulated within carbon layers, used for electrochemical deionization as a promising next-gen-eration water treatment technology. Reprinted with permission from Ref. 194 Copyright 2022 American Chemical Society  J Nanopart Res          (2026) 28:175   175   Page 18 of 34Vol:. (1234567890)advanced methodologies not only enhance the perfor-mance of sensing materials and reduce environmental impact but also constitute an essential foundation for ensuring a safer and more secure society.BiomedicalThe application of nanoparticles in the medical field has brought remarkable innovations to both diagnos-tics and therapeutics. Through molecular-level struc-tural design and surface modification, nanoparticles can achieve high biocompatibility, multifunctional-ity, and targeted delivery, enabling the integration of novel functionalities unattainable with conventional medical materials. In the biomedical arena in particu-lar, nanoparticles have shown significant promise in diverse areas, including imaging diagnostics, drug delivery, and wound healing, with their importance and potential expected to grow further in the future. As illustrated by the examples in this section, research employing advanced nanoarchitectonics techniques continues to expand the range and impact of these biomedical applications.Although a variety of medical imaging contrast agents have been developed, integrating contrast signal generation, therapeutic functions, and micro-robotic capabilities within a single platform remains challenging without complex fabrication processes. Kim et  al. developed a core–shell submicron par-ticle system composed of upconversion nanopar-ticles (UCNPs) and a covalent organic framework (COF), termed UCNP–COF (Fig.  10) [195]. These core–shell UCNP–COF particles seamlessly inte-grate multispectral optoacoustic tomography (MSOT) imaging, drug loading with controlled release, and Fig. 10   Preparation and functions of a core–shell submi-cron particle system composed of upconversion nanoparti-cles (UCNPs) and a covalent organic framework (COF), to seamlessly integrate multi-spectral optoacoustic tomography (MSOT) imaging, drug loading with controlled release, and microrobotic functionalities for diagnostic–therapeutic tech-nologies. Reproduced under terms of the CC-BY license from Ref. 195, 2025 Wiley-VCHJ Nanopart Res          (2026) 28:175   Page 19 of 34    175 Vol.: (0123456789)microrobotic functionalities. The COF shell enables efficient absorption of the UCNP-generated lumines-cence, conversion to acoustic signals for imaging, and offers high stability and biocompatibility. The regular mesoporous structure of the COF facilitates efficient drug encapsulation and controlled release at target sites. By incorporating a magnetic Janus layer, mag-netic navigation and real-time tracking become possi-ble, establishing a novel multifunctional platform for combined medical imaging and therapy. UCNP–COF particles act as therapeutic microrobots traceable by MSOT imaging and can be flexibly loaded with therapeutic molecules tailored to the intended appli-cation. The optoacoustic signal generation mecha-nism is based on upconverted emission from the UCNPs absorbed by the COF, which is subsequently converted into acoustic signals. Additionally, the mesoporous and high surface area characteristics of the COF enable efficient drug loading and controlled release specifically at targeted locations. By integrat-ing a magnetic nanofilm, the UCNP–COF particles are transformed into magnetically responsive Janus microrobots that can be navigated intravascularly and tracked in real time via 3D MSOT. This research exemplifies the nanoarchitectonics approach, in which the precise assembly of heterogeneous nanomateri-als—UCNPs and COFs—results in a single particle that synergistically integrates multiple functionali-ties, including luminescence, absorption, drug load-ing, magnetic manipulation, and biocompatibility. Nanostructural and interfacial design, combined with controlled porosity at the nanoscale, enables the man-ifestation of advanced chemical and physical func-tions, making significant contributions to the creation of next-generation multifunctional medical materi-als and diagnostic–therapeutic technologies through nanoarchitectonics.Stiffness, a critical physicochemical property of nanoparticles, profoundly affects bio-nano-inter-actions such as blood circulation, biodistribution, tumor accumulation, and cellular uptake. However, the influence of stiffness on drug delivery efficiency remains to be fully elucidated. In their study titled “Multilayered Nanoarchitectonics of Poly(ethylene glycol) Nanoparticles,” Li et al. tuned the stiffness of poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) nanoparticles by control-ling the number of layers and demonstrated that softer nanoparticles exhibited enhanced blood circulation, tumor accumulation, and cellular targeting, as well as reduced protein adsorption and hepatic accumula-tion (Fig. 11) [196]. In this work, PEG nanoparticles were synthesized using a layer-by-layer (LbL) assem-bly approach, and stiffness (Young’s modulus rang-ing from 2 to 31  kPa) was adjusted by varying the number of bilayers. The results revealed that softer PEG nanoparticles exhibited lower protein corona formation and cellular adhesion and that increased stiffness (more layers) led to shorter circulation times and increased hepatic accumulation. Furthermore, stiffness significantly influenced targeted drug deliv-ery; hyaluronic acid–modified soft PEG nanoparticles showed superior tumor accumulation, cellular target-ing, and tumor growth inhibition. Thus, hyaluronic acid–functionalized soft nanoparticles demonstrated strong antitumor efficacy, highlighting the potential of optimizing drug delivery through control of nanopar-ticle stiffness and bio-nano-interactions. These find-ings underscore the crucial role of bilayer-controlled stiffness in regulating bio-nano-interactions and dem-onstrate the potential for more effective nanocarrier design in drug delivery applications. Employing the nanoarchitectonics concept, this study precisely engi-neered the layer structure and mechanical properties of PEG nanoparticles to optimize in vivo interactions and drug delivery performance. Integrating nanoscale physical properties, surface engineering, flexibility, and targeting epitomizes an innovative approach for adjusting biocompatibility, circulation, and therapeu-tic outcomes, firmly establishing the importance of nanoarchitectonics in the realization of high-perfor-mance nanocarriers.The rise of multidrug-resistant wound infections necessitates novel therapeutic strategies that simul-taneously eradicate pathogens while harmonizing the complex immune-healing processes. In their paper, “Green-nanoarchitectonics for Sub-2 nm Ag Nanoparticles,” Li et al. developed a multifunctional cryogel by immobilizing ultrasmall silver nanoparti-cles onto attapulgite (APT) nanorods via green syn-thesis mediated by peony root extract and embed-ding these nanocomposites into a composite matrix (Fig.  12) [197]. Their green approach employed peony root extract to mediate the in  situ formation and high dispersion of ultrasmall Ag nanoparticles (average 1.26 ± 0.3  nm) on APT nanorods. The resulting Ag nanoparticles/APT nanocomposites were then integrated into a physically crosslinked network of carboxymethyl chitosan (CMC) and   J Nanopart Res          (2026) 28:175   175   Page 20 of 34Vol:. (1234567890)κ-carrageenan (KCG), yielding a multifunctional cryogel (CMC/KCG/Ag nanoparticles/APT). This cryogel exhibited potent antibacterial activity against multidrug-resistant bacteria and biofilms, excellent mechanical strength, rapid liquid absorp-tion, and high biocompatibility. The APT nanorods played a crucial role in both imparting strength to the polymer matrix and promoting the formation of ultrasmall silver nanoparticles. The incorporation of Ag nanoparticles/APT generated synergistic physic-ochemical effects—such as hydrogen bonding with CMC/KCG and mechanical interlocking—which Fig. 11   Tuning of the stiffness of poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) nanoparticles by controlling the number of layers, which dem-onstrated that softer nanoparticles exhibited enhanced blood circulation, tumor accumulation, and cellular targeting, as well as reduced protein adsorption and hepatic accumulation. Reprinted with permission from Ref. 196 Copyright 2025 American Chemical SocietyJ Nanopart Res          (2026) 28:175   Page 21 of 34    175 Vol.: (0123456789)Fig. 12   Preparation of multifunctional cryogels by immobi-lizing ultrasmall silver nanoparticles onto attapulgite (APT) nanorods via green synthesis exhibiting potent antibacte-rial activity against multidrug-resistant bacteria and biofilms, excellent mechanical strength, rapid liquid absorption, and high biocompatibility for the development of wound manage-ment. Reprinted with permission from Ref. 197 Copyright 2025 American Chemical Society  J Nanopart Res          (2026) 28:175   175   Page 22 of 34Vol:. (1234567890)provided a balance of high mechanical robust-ness and rapid hemostasis as the basis of the mate-rial’s multifunctionality. The system achieved high antibacterial, hemostatic, and mechanical perfor-mance alongside inflammation modulation and tis-sue repair promotion, resulting in excellent healing rates for multidrug-resistant wounds. The synergis-tic integration of inorganic nanomaterials, biopoly-mers, and natural clay considerably advances the development of wound management materials. This study demonstrates the nanoarchitectonics approach by precisely assembling diverse constituents—including ultrasmall Ag nanoparticles, natural APT, and biopolymers (CMC, KCG)—at the nanoscale, enabling the simultaneous manifestation of antibac-terial, hemostatic, mechanical, and immunomodula-tory functions. The controlled structure and coop-erative design transcend conventional material limitations, offering a sustainable and high-perfor-mance wound management solution—an exemplary outcome of nanoarchitectonics applied to multi-functional therapeutic material development.Neurodegenerative diseases are prevalent, pro-gressive, and fatal disorders particularly affecting the elderly. Many therapeutic candidates have failed due to insufficient efficacy, toxicity, or poor permeability across the blood–brain barrier, highlighting the need for improved drug delivery strategies. Nanomedicine offers a promising approach to enhance the thera-peutic performance of existing compounds. In their study “Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles via Tem-plate Nanoarchitectonics,” Onrubia-Márquez et  al. designed a nanoscale formulation of the metal-chelat-ing drug deferoxamine (DFO) using mesoporous silica nanoparticles (Fig.  13) [198]. By conjugat-ing hydrophobic chains to DFO to confer amphi-philic properties, DFO was used as a drug-structure-directing agent, enabling it to serve as a template for mesoporous silica nanoparticle formation. This strat-egy enabled the synthesis of mesoporous silica nano-particles with high drug loading capacity, controlled release, and tunable particle size. The resulting nano-particles exhibited efficient iron chelation and inhi-bition of aluminum-induced amyloid formation and Fig. 13   Formulation of the metal-chelating drug deferoxam-ine (DFO) using mesoporous silica nanoparticles with particle size-dependent permeability across the blood–brain barrier in  vitro, leading to a multifunctional, long-acting, and safe nanocarrier design for neurodegenerative diseases. Reproduced under terms of the CC-BY license from Ref. 198, 2025 Ameri-can Chemical SocietyJ Nanopart Res          (2026) 28:175   Page 23 of 34    175 Vol.: (0123456789)demonstrated particle size–dependent permeability across the blood–brain barrier in  vitro. Safety was confirmed using BV-2 microglia and human neuro-blastoma SH-SY5Y cells, along with validation of iron chelation and aluminum-induced amyloid aggre-gation inhibition in  vitro. This approach represents a multifunctional, long-acting, and safe nanocarrier design for neurodegenerative diseases, with further in vivo evaluation anticipated. This work exemplifies the nanoarchitectonics concept, wherein DFO deriva-tives function as structure-directing agents, enabling precise nanoscale control over mesoporous silica nanoparticle size, surface characteristics, drug encap-sulation, and release profiles. Achieving high drug loading, sustained release via nanostructuring, and optimized bio-barrier permeability via particle size control are paradigmatic of function and performance creation through nanoarchitectonics—making a sub-stantial contribution to the safe and multifunctional neuroprotective material development field.VIPR2 is a receptor associated with psychiatric disorders, breast cancer metastasis, and cancer immu-nostimulation. The VIPR2 antagonist KS-133 shifts macrophage polarization toward the M1 phenotype, and nanoparticles releasing KS-133 exhibit antitumor effects against murine colon cancer cells (CT26). In the study titled “Therapeutic Nanoarchitectonics for Solid Tumors,” Sakamoto et  al. sought to enhance the antitumor effect of KS-133 nanoparticles by com-bining them with the peptide KS-487, which targets LRP1 expressed on CT26 cells [199]. By incorpo-rating both the VIPR2 antagonist KS-133 and the LRP1-targeting peptide KS-487 into nanoparticles, they achieved substantially improved tumor delivery and antitumor efficacy in a murine CT26 colon cancer model. While the nanoparticles naturally accumulate in tumors via the enhanced permeability and reten-tion (EPR) effect, the addition of the targeting peptide further increased accumulation at the tumor site. This dual-targeting approach resulted in greater infiltration of CD8⁺ T cells and macrophages into tumor tissue, leading to enhanced antitumor immune activation and significant tumor suppression. The KS-133/KS-487 nanoparticle system represents a promising new anti-tumor agent, with potential applications in refractory cancer and in combination with immunotherapy. This work exemplifies the principles and technological advances of nanoarchitectonics by integrating func-tional peptide targeting (KS-487), VIPR2 antagonist delivery (KS-133), and nanoparticle engineering at the nanoscale. High tumor accumulation, immune cell activation, and efficient drug release were all achieved through precise nanostructural design. Such sophisticated control over nanoparticle surfaces, drug loading, and molecular modifications demonstrates the core of nanoarchitectonics, contributing signifi-cantly to the development of novel therapeutics for refractory cancers.The treatment of pancreatic cancer remains chal-lenging due to pronounced desmoplasia and severe hypoxic conditions. Unlike oxygen-dependent Type II photosensitizers, Type I photosensitizers can generate substantial amounts of reactive oxygen species (ROS) even under hypoxic conditions, making them suitable for photodynamic therapy (PDT) in pancreatic can-cer. However, the highly dense extracellular matrix of pancreatic tumors hinders photosensitizer penetra-tion, while immunosuppressive cells within the tumor microenvironment further diminish treatment effi-cacy. To address these challenges, Xu et al. designed a photoimmunotherapeutic nanoparticle system that combines a Type I photosensitizer with anti-PD-L1 siRNA (siPD-L1) encapsulated within M1 mac-rophage-derived membrane vesicles (Fig.  14) [200]. This system is tailored to operate in hypoxic and densely fibrotic tumor environments. In this design, pyropheophorbide a is covalently conjugated to poly-L-arginine, functioning as a Type I photosensitizer capable of generating superoxide anions efficiently even under hypoxia. Additionally, the Arg9 segment serves as a nitric oxide (NO) donor, inhibiting cancer-associated fibroblast activation and promoting extra-cellular matrix degradation, thereby improving nano-particle penetration. The M1 macrophage membrane component contributes to active tumor targeting and facilitates the re-education of immunosuppressive M2 macrophages. Collectively, this system achieves enhanced NO production, improved tumor penetra-tion through extracellular matrix modulation, repro-gramming of the immunosuppressive environment, and augmented immunotherapeutic efficacy, ulti-mately yielding superior therapeutic effects in pancre-atic cancer models. This represents a novel strategy underscoring the importance of oxygen-independent PDT and tumor microenvironment remodeling. The study exemplifies the nanoarchitectonics approach by precisely integrating diverse functional molecules and nanostructures—including Type I photosensitizers,   J Nanopart Res          (2026) 28:175   175   Page 24 of 34Vol:. (1234567890)NO donors, RNA therapeutics, and macrophage membranes—into a multifunctional platform through rigorous structural and interfacial design. Achieving biocompatibility, environmental responsiveness, and multifunctional therapeutic action via nanoscale engi-neering highlights the potential of nanoarchitectonics in enabling advanced drug delivery, tumor microenvi-ronment modulation, and reinforced immune activity in cancer therapy.Ischemic stroke is a devastating disorder and one of the leading causes of death worldwide. Excessive generation of ROS and inflammatory responses fol-lowing ischemic injury contribute significantly to secondary brain damage. Although nanozymes with potent antioxidative properties have shown promise for treating ischemic injury, their limited accumu-lation within neuronal mitochondria has hindered clinical translation. In their study titled “Polydopa-mine-Cloaked Nanoarchitectonics of Prussian Blue Nanoparticles,” Zhao et  al. developed polydopa-mine-coated Prussian blue nanoparticles endowed with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory functions for ischemic stroke therapy (Fig. 15) [201]. These nano-particles achieved targeted accumulation in neuronal mitochondria and exhibited potent antioxidative and anti-inflammatory effects. In neonatal and adult mouse models, they demonstrated enhanced brain accumulation, reduced infarct volume, neuropro-tection, attenuation of inflammation, and promoted functional recovery—pointing toward their potential as multifunctional nanomaterials for the treatment of brain disease. This study utilizes the framework of nanoarchitectonics by precisely engineering particle size, surface coating, and functional properties (anti-oxidant activity, anti-inflammatory capability, and mitochondrial targeting) to optimize brain accumula-tion and therapeutic performance. Structural, molecu-lar, and interfacial designs at the nanoscale have led to significant advances in neurodegenerative disease therapy and hold promise for the creation of next-generation multifunctional nanomaterials.As demonstrated in the examples above, nano-architectonics has driven numerous innovations in the biomedical applications of nanoparticles. Traditionally, single-function contrast agents or carriers dominated medical practice; however, recent studies have enabled the precise integration of heterogeneous nanomaterials to create parti-cle designs that unify multiple functionalities—including imaging diagnostics, drug loading, and microrobotic capabilities—within a single plat-form. Moreover, the molecular-scale optimization Fig. 14   Preparation of photoimmunotherapeutic nanoparticle system that combines a Type I photosensitizer with anti-PD-L1 siRNA (siPD-L1) encapsulated within M1 macrophage-derived membrane vesicles. Reprinted with permission from Ref. 200 Copyright 2025 American Chemical SocietyJ Nanopart Res          (2026) 28:175   Page 25 of 34    175 Vol.: (0123456789)of nanoparticle stiffness, multilayer structure, and surface modification has markedly improved bio-distribution and targeting efficacy in  vivo. Such advances contribute to the development of multi-functional nanomaterials that achieve both thera-peutic efficacy and safety in previously intractable areas, such as refractory tumors, neurological dis-orders, and multidrug-resistant wound infections. Progress in environmentally friendly synthesis through green nanoarchitectonics and the targeted delivery of nanoparticles for brain diseases exem-plifies the adaptability of this approach. Nanoarchi-tectonics thus provides an essential foundation for designing high-performance medical materials, customizable to the characteristics and therapeutic challenges of specific diseases. The convergence of nanotechnology and nanoarchitectonics is accel-erating the emergence of advanced diagnostic and therapeutic modalities in next-generation biomedi-cal science.Summary and outlookAs summarized in this article, the concept of nano-architectonics has become indispensable in the devel-opment of functional nanoparticles. Nanoarchitecton-ics is a design philosophy that enables the creation of materials with novel functions and properties unat-tainable by traditional materials science, through the precise control and integration of atoms, molecules, and nanoscale structures. One of the primary applica-tion areas for functional nanoparticles is the energy and environmental fields. The advancements have enabled significant progress in addressing multifac-eted challenges such as improvements in energy con-version efficiency, resource recycling, water purifi-cation, and the enhancement of sensor functionality. The contributions of nanoarchitectonics with func-tional nanoparticles in the bio- and medical fields have also become remarkable. In applications such as medical imaging agents, drug delivery systems, Fig. 15   Preparation of polydopamine-coated Prussian blue nanoparticles endowed with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory functions for ischemic stroke therapy and their TEM images. Reproduced under terms of the CC-BY license from Ref. 201, 2024 AAAS  J Nanopart Res          (2026) 28:175   175   Page 26 of 34Vol:. (1234567890)microrobotic interventions, regenerative medicine, and wound healing biomaterials, advances in precise structural design—such as multifunctional core–shell particles, stiffness-tuned nanoparticles, green cryo-gels for multidrug-resistant bacteria, and mesoporous silica nanocarriers—have enabled the realization of high biocompatibility, targeted delivery, and multi-functionality. Moreover, in the field of sensing and diagnostics, the development of highly sensitive biosensors and food safety monitoring materials has been realized through the rational design of nanopar-ticles and nanoclusters. As evidenced by leading-edge cases in each field, the creation and expanding appli-cation of functional nanoparticles epitomizes the pro-gress of “design science” enabled by the principles and techniques of nanoarchitectonics, positioning it at the core of materials innovation for a sustainable society. In addition to these contents, recent several review articles on nanoarchitectonics and nanoparti-cles approaches for catalytic functions would provide further information. For example, their critical impor-tance on enzyme biocatalysis in pharmaceuticals [202], peptide-nanoparticle conjugates as a theranos-tic platform [203], and all solid‑state batteries [204] is deeply discussed.As outlined above, nanoarchitectonics is being increasingly applied to a diverse array of substances and functional systems, and the field is witnessing remarkable innovations in the development of func-tional nanoparticles. Looking ahead, the integration of artificial intelligence (AI) and materials informat-ics stands out as a particularly promising direction. AI and machine learning have already been introduced in many studies and will become indispensable for the precise design and prediction of diverse functional molecules and structures at the nanoscale [205–208]. Rational implementation of complex functionali-ties—such as those mimicking biological tissues—will increasingly require AI-driven design support, optimization, and the fusion of materials informatics with nanoarchitectonics [209–213].The research focus within nanoarchitectonics is also shifting toward practical applications, with advances in technologies for the large-scale and high-area fabrication of functional nanoparticles. This trend reflects a move to incorporate existing production process technologies, such as chemical processing and microfabrication, thereby translating nanoarchitectonics concepts into industrial practice. These developments are bridging the gap between academic knowledge and practical implementation and are expected to advance the high-performance, cost-effectiveness, and mass production of functional nanoparticles for broader societal use.Going forward, the design and development of complex nanoparticles composed of multiple func-tional units—such as composite nanoparticles—will become increasingly important. To this end, optimi-zation and simulation techniques supported by AI are anticipated to be utilized more extensively than ever before. In summary, the development of functional nanoparticles via nanoarchitectonics, in conjunction with AI, materials informatics, and practical process technologies, is expected to spur new breakthroughs and expand industrial applications. This trend will accelerate the rational design of multifunctional and composite nanoparticles, driving the future advance-ment of materials science and nanotechnology.Acknowledgements  This study was partially supported by Japan Society for the Promotion of Science KAKENHI (Grant Numbers JP23H05459, JP25H00898, JP 25K23571, and JP26K15594).Author contribution  Conceptualization K. A.; collecting lit-erature K. A.; writing – original draft, review and editing L. S. and K. A.; funding acquisition L. S. and K. A.Data availability  No datasets were generated or analyzed during the current study.Declarations Competing interests  The authors declare no competing inter-ests.Open Access  This article is licensed under a Creative Com-mons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Crea-tive Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. 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Functional particle nanoarchitectonics Abstract  Introduction Synthesis and assembly Properties Catalyst to energy Sensing to environment Biomedical Summary and outlook Acknowledgements  References