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Christian D. Matthus, Phanish Chava, [Kenji Watanabe](https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3701-8119), [Takashi Taniguchi](https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1467-3105), Thomas Mikolajick, Manfred Helm, Artur Erbe

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[<i>I-V-T</i> Characteristics and Temperature Sensor Performance of a Fully 2-D WSe<sub>2</sub>/MoS<sub>2</sub> Heterojunction Diode at Cryogenic Temperatures](https://mdr.nims.go.jp/datasets/436a08ea-2d91-4272-9b08-107912867ccf)

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<italic>I-V-T</italic> Characteristics and Temperature Sensor Performance of a Fully 2-D WSe<sub>2</sub>/MoS<sub>2</sub> Heterojunction Diode at Cryogenic TemperaturesReceived 2 May 2023; revised 13 June 2023 and 20 June 2023; accepted 22 June 2023. Date of publication 26 June 2023; date of current version 13 July 2023.The review of this article was arranged by Editor Z. Wang.Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/JEDS.2023.3289758I-V-T Characteristics and TemperatureSensor Performance of a Fully 2-DWSe2/MoS2 Heterojunction Diodeat Cryogenic TemperaturesCHRISTIAN D. MATTHUS 1, PHANISH CHAVA 2, KENJI WATANABE 3, TAKASHI TANIGUCHI4,THOMAS MIKOLAJICK5 (Fellow, IEEE), MANFRED HELM2, AND ARTUR ERBE21 Chair for Circuit Design and Network Theory, Technische Universität Dresden, 01062 Dresden, Germany2 Institute of Ion Beam Physics and Materials Research, Helmholtz Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf, 01328 Dresden, Germany3 Research Center for Electronic and Optical Materials, National Institute for Materials Science, Tsukuba 305-0044, Japan4 Research Center for Materials Nanoarchitectonics, National Institute for Materials Science, Tsukuba 305-0044, Japan5 Chair of Nanoelectronics, Technische Universität Dresden, 01062 Dresden, GermanyCORRESPONDING AUTHOR: C. D. MATTHUS (e-mail: christian.matthus@tu-dresden.de)This work was supported in part by the SPES3 Project funded by the German Ministry for Education and Research (BMBF) through the Forschung für neue Mikroelektronik (ForMikro)Program under Project 3146229002/16ES1066K, and in part by the European Social Fund and the Free State of Saxony in the Project Re-Learning under Project 100382146.(Christian D. Matthus and Phanish Chava contributed equally to this work.)ABSTRACT In this work, we demonstrate the usability of a fully-2D-material based device consisting ofMoS2/WSe2 heterojunction encapsulated by hBN and contacted by graphene as temperature sensor forlinear temperature measurement at cryogenic temperatures. More precisely, temperatures in the range of10 K up to 300 K were applied to the device while recording the I-V characteristics. In contrast to theclassical expectation, the main current flows through the device when it is reversely biased. We ascribethis to a combination of drift-diffusion and band-to-band tunneling, while for very low temperatures(T < 100 K), variable-range hopping or trap-assisted tunneling seems dominant. In case of forward bias,the Schottky contact on the WSe2-anode hinders the charge transport in the voltage range of interest.Additionally, we obtained the activation energy of the saturation current in reverse direction in an Arrheniusdiagram. Depending on the bias level, it varies between 100 meV and 300 meV, which may be related to theenergy barrier caused by interface traps, generation centers between both semiconducting 2D materials,and the band-to-band tunneling. Furthermore, we investigated the temperature-sensor performance byapplying a constant current to the device and measuring the voltage drop at different temperatures. In therange of 40 K up to 300 K, the sensitivity of the sensor is ∼2 mV/K, which is comparable to Si devices,while the linearity is still lower (R2 ∼ 0.94). On the other hand, the demonstrated device consists onlyof 2D materials and is, thus, substrate independent, very thin, and can potentially be fabricated on a fullyflexible substrate in a low-cost process.INDEX TERMS Temperature sensing, 2D-material diode, cryogenic measurements, MoS2, WSe2, hetero-junction, 2D sensor.I. INTRODUCTIONSince the invention of graphene achieving the Nobel Prize inphysics in 2010 [1], 2D materials are among the most promi-nent research areas in chemistry, physics, material science,and engineering today. An extremely high potential for 2Dmaterials is predicted in many areas, especially for pho-tonics and printed and/or fully flexible integrated electron-ics [2], [3], [4]. Also, for advanced sensor systems, whichThis work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License. For more information, see https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/VOLUME 11, 2023 359HTTPS://ORCID.ORG/0000-0002-2180-7861HTTPS://ORCID.ORG/0000-0001-9938-2835HTTPS://ORCID.ORG/0000-0003-3701-8119MATTHUS et al.: I-V-T CHARACTERISTICS AND TEMPERATURE SENSOR PERFORMANCEare in the focus of our work, 2D materials offer great poten-tial. As an example from literature, MoS2-based chemicalsensors were presented [5]. On the other hand, diode-basedtemperature sensors, although well known for traditionalsemiconductors as Si [6], silicon-on-insulator (SOI) [7], [8],Ge [9], or emerging materials like SiC [10], [11], [12], werenot yet in the main focus of research on 2D materials.Nevertheless, some recent works investigated temperaturesensors, which were not based on traditional semiconduc-tor technology but on advanced and nanoscale materials likegraphene oxide [13], Ag/Al metal temperature sensors [14],organic-transistor temperature-sensor arrays [15], Pt/In2O3thin-film thermocouples [16], or flexible temperature sensorsdevices like SnSe2 nanoflakes with 1D NiO gate insula-tor [17] and, very recently, also the 2D material MoS2 [18].Furthermore, other works focused on the thermal carriertransport in 2D films also at cryogenic temperatures [19],demonstrated MoSe2-based thermistors [20], or resistive tem-perature sensors, e.g., based on the most-prominent 2Dmaterial graphene [21], [22]. For a better understandingof the physics of defective semiconductor devices, cryo-genic measurements are typically used at temperatures muchbelow room temperatures, e.g., to de-charge or de-occupydefect states. In order to measure the actual temperature ofthe investigated structure, a monolithic temperature-sensorstructure may be helpful. Furthermore, on-chip temperaturesensing is also frequently used in circuit design, e.g., forcompensating temperature effect in bias net-works definingthe operation point of a circuit [23]. Additionally, severalother applications can be found for cryogenic on-chip diodebased sensors [24]. In most cases, substrate independencyallowing, e.g., for mechanical flexibility, is a strong advan-tages which is also true for an easy manufacturing process.In this paper, we report for the first time on a semicon-ductor diode for linear temperature sensing at cryogenictemperatures consisting only of 2D materials and basedon a MoS2/WSe2 heterojunction. The device is shown inFig. 1 (a) as optical microphotograph and (b) schematiccross section. Note that both gate electrodes shown inFig. 1 were connected to ground for all measurements, sincewe only investigated the pn-junction in this work. Severalworks within the last years already started investigatingthe transport mechanisms in 2D heterojunctions includingMoS2/WSe2 interfaces [25], [26], [27], [28], [29], [30], [31].In some works, studies even include measurements at cryo-genic temperatures, while a detailed study on its application,as a temperature sensor, to best of our knowledge, has neverbeen conducted.The paper is organized as follows: In Section II, wede-scribe the device structure (see also Fig. 1) as well asthe manufacturing procedure and the measurement setup.In Section III, the I-V-T characteristics are shown and dis-cussed including the carrier transport mechanism, while inSection IV we report on the temperature-sensor performance.Finally, Section V contains the conclusions and the outlook.FIGURE 1. (a) Optical microscope image and (b) Cross sectionschematicshowing the device consisting of 2D materials MoS2, WSe2,hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN) and few-layer graphene (FLGr) with all themeasurement terminals.II. EXPERIMENTALA. DEVICE STRUCTURE AND FABRICATION METHODThe 2D materials are mechanically exfoliated ontopoly(dimethylsiloxane) PDMS with the help of a scotchtape and are stacked together using the dry stamping tech-nique [32] on a highly p-doped silicon substrate with athermally oxidized surface (oxide thickness of 285 nm).The complete assembly of the heterostructures is done ina nitrogen filled glove-box environment. The layer-by-layertransfer of each material is shown in Fig. 2 with the helpof a schematic diagram and an optical microscope imageshowing the edges of the transferred flake by dotted lines.We firstly transferred semi-metallic few-layered graphene(FLGr) followed by the dielectric hexagonal boron nitride(h-BN) which forms the bottom gate stack for the device.Semiconducting WSe2 as p-type semiconductor and MoS2as n-type semiconductor were then transferred onto the bot-tom h-BN forming the active region for the diode. FLGrwas used again as an intermediate contact layer to the semi-conductors in order to reduce the effect of the Fermi levelpinning. The last step of 2D-material deposition was toencapsulate the active region with top h-BN. Finally, thesource, drain and gate electrodes are patterned using a sin-gle electron beam lithography step. 10 nm/50 nm (Ni/Au)metal stack was evaporated as the interconnect material. The360 VOLUME 11, 2023MATTHUS et al.: I-V-T CHARACTERISTICS AND TEMPERATURE SENSOR PERFORMANCEFIGURE 2. Step-by-step fabrication of the heterostructures illustrated byschematics and corresponding optical microscope images. Few-layergraphene (FLGr) was used for anode (A) and cathode (C) contacts.thicknesses of the transferred flakes were investigated withthe help of atomic force microscopy (AFM). The top andbottom h-BN layers were approximately 10-12 nm while theFLGr contacts to the pn-junction (anode and cathode contact)were 6-9 nm. The thickness of WSe2 and MoS2 flakes areapproximately 5 nm and 3 nm, respectively with a thicknessvariation of about 1 nm. The AFM profile can be found inFig. A1 in the Appendix. However, a more precise determi-nation of the thicknesses is difficult without destroying thesamples.B. MEASUREMENT SETUPThe schematic measurement setup is shown in Fig. 3. Thedevice was placed in a vacuum chamber that is connectedto a liquid helium dewar in combination with a Lakeshore340 temperature controller to regulate and monitor the tem-perature of the chamber. The probes on the devices in thechamber are connected to a 4155C Agilent semiconduc-tor parameter analyzer from which the voltage and currentsources were applied to the device-under-test (DUT). Wefirst recorded the I-V characteristics of the sample at roomFIGURE 3. Schematic of the measurement setup.temperature and then cooled down the chamber to thebase temperature of 10 K. Measurements were performedat regular intervals of temperature starting from 10 K upto room temperature of 300 K. We mainly recorded twotypes of measurements throughout the temperature rangementioned: (a) sourcing voltage across the diode by sweep-ing in the range of −1 V to 1 V, and measuring thediode current (b) sourcing current through the diode inthe range of −10 nA to 10 nA, and measuring the cor-responding voltage drop across the diode. Although wementioned about the gate electrodes on top and bottom ofthe diode previously, these terminals were always groundedduring the measurements and therefore have nearly no effecton the characteristics of the diode. In future, we plan toinvestigate the effect of these gates on the diode. All para-sitics (including, e.g., contact resistances) are combined inone series resistance Rseries (cf. Fig. 3). Latter is not anideal ohmic resistor and consists of nonlinearities, but forweak bias levels, i.e., low currents the pn-junction modeledby the nearly ideal diode as explained below determinesthe device current and, thus, Rseries can be neglected inthis case.III. CURRENT-VOLTAGE-TEMPERATURECHARACTERISTICSThe measured I-V characteristics are shown in Fig. 4 inlinear and logarithmic y-scale within the temperature rangebetween 10 K and 300 K for applied voltages over the het-erojunction of −1 V up to 1 V in WSe2/MoS2 direction.As can be seen, the diode shows rectifying behavior for alltemperatures. However, in contrast to a classical pn-junctiondiode, the main current flows in the reverse direction unlike.This type of reverse rectifying behavior has already beenreported for MoS2/WSe2 diodes [25], [26], [27], [28]. Thismay be confusing at a glance, but can be explained hav-ing a deeper look on the band structure and, especially, thecontact behavior as depicted in Fig. 5. The shown valuesfor electron affinities and bandgaps of the 2D materials areexperimentally determined values from literature [29], [33].The observed current can be explained as follows. The FLGrand Ni/Au contacts form a nearly Ohmic contact to MoS2while they show a significant Schottky barrier and rectifyingVOLUME 11, 2023 361MATTHUS et al.: I-V-T CHARACTERISTICS AND TEMPERATURE SENSOR PERFORMANCEFIGURE 4. I-V characteristics in linear scale for −1 ≤ V ≤ 1 and inset samein log scale just for V > 0V.behavior towards WSe2. This Schottky diode (FLGr/WSe2junction) has the opposite polarity compared to that of the pn-junction diode (WSe2/MoS2 junction). If latter is reverselybiased, the influence of the Schottky barrier decreases sinceit is forward biased and its depletion region becomes verynarrow, but its effect cannot be fully ignored at low reversebias voltages of the pn-junction. Furthermore, in this caseminority carriers tunnel from the conduction band of MoS2 tothe valence band of WSe2 leading to band-to-band tunneling.In case of forward bias of the pn-junction, the recombina-tion and diffusion current (or even drift current for veryhigh bias levels) is blocked by the Schottky barrier of theWSe2/FLGr-contact. In this case, the width of the deple-tion region caused by the Schottky barrier increases whichmay lead to a lowering of the barrier between WSe2 andMoS2 when it interacts with the pn-junction depletion region.However, applying higher voltages to the device in order toachieve higher currents may lead to destruction of the sampleby local stress due to high electric fields or current densities.In our measurements with low positive voltages applied tothe device, nearly no current (1 pA or less) is flowing inforward direction for a bias level of up to 1 V.In the reverse-biased pn-junction, current can flowdue to i) drift-diffusion in light to moderately dopedsemiconductors; ii) generation of carriers due to defects(Shockley-Read-Hall generation/recombination) or photons;iii) band-to-band tunneling; iv) trap-assisted tunneling; andv) thermionic emission [34]. For the active area of thedevice of 25±5 µm2 (uncertainty caused by inhomogeneityof the flakes), the highest current density is approximately64 mA/cm2. However, the modeling of the reverse I-Vcharacteristics of 2D-material based heterojunctions is notstraightforward. Quantum mechanical transport simulationsmay be required for an in-depth analysis and many param-eters have to be set as boundary conditions, which are notall known for the present device. Additionally, quantummechanical simulations are limited to atomistic scale, whilethe geometric dimensions of our device are much larger (asshown above). Hence, for a very rough model, we used theclassical diode equation to model our reverse current. Notethat this is normally valid for the case of forward currentin a classical pn-junction diode. In this case, the follow-ing equation can be used as also described in the model ofLiu et al. [29] for reverse biased WSe2/MoS2 heterojunctiondiodes:I(V,T) = I0[ exp(qV/kBT) − 1] (1)with the saturation current I0, the Boltzmann constant kBand the elementary charge q. For empirical data, where dif-ferent carrier transport mechanisms may contribute to theoverall current, a simplified formula is also frequently usedfor voltages much larger than ∼3kBT. We applied this to thereverse bias regime as follows:I(V,T) = −I0 exp(−qV/nkBT) (2)with the ideality factor n. Using this equation, one canfit a regression line on the obtained currents in semilogscale (see inset of Fig. 4) and deduct from these modellines the value of the saturation current and the ideal-ity factor. This was done twice: for lower reverse biaslevels (−0.6 V > V ≥ −0.8 V) and higher bias levels(−0.8 V > V ≥ −1 V). The obtained values for the ideal-ity factor are shown in Fig. 6. For traditional semiconductordiodes in forward direction, typical values of the idealityfactor are approximately between one and two and canbe related to diffusion current or recombination current,respectively. However, the values obtained here are signif-icantly higher, i.e., approximately between 3.3 and 8.6 forthe lower bias level and temperatures above 50 K, whilevalues between approximately 4.2 and 8.6 were obtainedfor the higher bias level and the same temperature range.It increases strongly for much lower temperatures (<50 K),which may be a hint for additional carrier transport mech-anisms. This can be related to the freeze-out of dopantsand charge transport by (Mott variable-range) hopping ortrap-assisted tunneling [12], [35], [36], [37], [38], but dueto the very low current levels closer to the noise level, themodel fit is quite inaccurate and the interpretation needs tobe treated with care since we do not use the model accord-ing to its physical basis but rather as an equation to fit thedata. For temperatures above 50 K, one can have a lookonto the temperature behavior of the saturation current I0as well. Typically, it follows an Arrhenius behavior in tra-ditional semiconductors caused by the exponential increaseof the intrinsic carrier density. Although the physics of thisfully-2D heterojunction diode is different, we still expectto have many temperature activated processes involved andtherefore one may assume an Arrhenius term as well, whichcan be described as follows:I0(T) = Ĩ0 exp(−EA/kBT) (3)with the pre-factor Ĩ0 for T → ∞ assumed to be nearlytemperature independent in a first-order approximation and362 VOLUME 11, 2023MATTHUS et al.: I-V-T CHARACTERISTICS AND TEMPERATURE SENSOR PERFORMANCEFIGURE 5. Band diagrams of (a) Graphene, WSe2 and MoS2 before the formation of the junction; (b) at thermal equilibrium condition; (c) Reverse biascondition; and (d) forward bias condition. (The values of the electron affinities and the bandgaps for WSe2 and MoS2 are taken from [29], and the valueof the graphene work function is taken from [33]. It should be noted that the bending of the band edges at the interface is very abrupt due to a verynarrow depletion region constrained by the combined thickness of WSe2 and MoS2 (<10nm).FIGURE 6. Obtained values for the ideality factor n for forward bias levelsbelow and above −0.8 V as a function of temperature.FIGURE 7. Arrhenius diagram for saturation current I0 obtained from theregression lines of the I-V characteristics (cf. Fig. 4). Inset: Detail shown forlimited temperature range T > 50 K.the activation energy EA. We extracted the activation ener-gies again for both higher and lower bias level. The obtainedvalues for I0 are shown in an Arrhenius diagram in Fig. 7.As can be seen, for T > 50 K, i.e., where the model approx-imation is valid, the obtained values can be represented byan Arrhenius term quite accurately at least for the higherbias level. For the lower bias level, the model only resultsin a good fit for temperatures of 100 K and above. Thus,we could obtain the values for the pre-factor Ĩ0, which areapproximately −8.68 pA and −11.4 nA for the higher andlower bias levels, respectively. The obtained activation ener-gies were 105.8 meV and 299.7 meV for the higher and lowerbias levels, respectively. The interpretation of the pre-factorĨ0 is difficult since it consists of many unknown parameters.Thus, for an accurate physical description one needs moreinformation, e.g., about defects and traps in both semicon-ducting materials. However, the obtained activation energiesmay give some insights into the carrier transport physics. Forthe higher bias level, the value of approximately 100 meVfits to the value obtained recently by Daus et al. [18] fora MoS2 based temperature sensor. In this case, the modelused to fit the reverse current is valid to some extent. On theother hand, the obtained value of approximately 300 meVfor the lower bias level is close to the conduction band offsetof MoS2 and WSe2 [38]. This may give also a hint on thecurrent transport mechanism, e.g., thermionic field emission,but further investigations are necessary to fully understandthe device behavior. Additionally, one can also distinguishfor the higher bias level between an activation energy fortemperatures below and above 100 K, with a slightly highervalue of approximately 143 meV in the latter case. This isalso very close to the values obtained by Daus et al. [18].Using (2) and (3), one can empirically describe thetemperature-dependent voltage drop of the diode biased bya constant current I byV(T) ≈ nkB/q[ ln(−I) − ln(−Ĩ0)]T − nEA/q. (4)As can be seen, in this simplified equation the voltagedrop V depends linearly on the temperature as long as thetemperature dependence of the ideality factor is not dom-inant. For that, we used an average value of n for bothbias levels namely nhb = 5.5 and nlb = 3.7, respectively.Hence, we can use the diode as linear temperature sensor asdescribed below.IV. TEMPERATURE SENSOR PERFORMANCEFig. 8 shows the V-T characteristics for temperaturesbetween 10 K and 300 K and ten different bias currentsin the range of −0.1 nA and −1 nA. Assuming a lineardependence between temperature and voltage drop, we canrewrite (4) as follows:V(T) = S(I)T + V0 (5)with the temperature sensor’s sensitivity S and the offsetvoltage V0. The value of latter is typically equivalent to theVOLUME 11, 2023 363MATTHUS et al.: I-V-T CHARACTERISTICS AND TEMPERATURE SENSOR PERFORMANCEFIGURE 8. V-T characteristics for I = −1 nA, I = −0.8 nA, I = −0.6 nA, I =−0.4 nA, I = −0.2 nA as well as respective linear fits and fits to the model(cf. (4)).bandgap for forward biased pn-junction diodes. This is whythe term ‘bandgap-reference’ is frequently used for simi-lar structure in circuit design [23]. In case of our device,this offset can be estimated by −n EA/q. Since the currenttransport mechanism is bias level dependent and the idealityfactor shows a temperature dependence, this offset differs fordifferent bias conditions. We could not observe a relation tothe bandgaps of either semiconductor that we used. However,by using an averaged ideality factor, the V-T-characteristicscan be described using (5) and shows a somewhat linearbehavior as can be seen in Fig. 8. Furthermore, the sensi-tivity Seqn(4),lb can be estimated by the first term in (4) andis found to be approximately 1.2 mV/K for −0.1 nA upto 2.3 mV/K for 1 nA and an ideality factor n′of 3.7. Theactually obtained sensitivity Sfit vary between 2.4 mV/K for−0.1 nA and 2.1 mV/K for −1 nA. While for higher cur-rents, the matching is quite good, the discrepancy for lowercurrents can be ascribed to the imperfect description of thedevice current by the simple model (cf. (2)) and noise lim-itations. One can see that the behavior generally followsthe theoretical line with Ĩ0 and n′ being the only empiricalparameters as shown in Fig. 7 exemplary for a current of−0.4 nA. However, one can observe that the offset V0 calcu-lated by (4) using the mean ideality factor is underestimatedby ∼100 meV. This is probably caused by imperfect contactsor leakage paths as well as the upon-mentioned simplifica-tions. If we shift the model line by −0.1 V, the matching isquite well, but another empirical correction is used. If we fitcomplete empirical linear regression lines following (5) withS and V0 as free parameters to the measurements, we candescribe and evaluate the temperature sensor performance,e.g., regarding linearity. The linearity of these fits representedby the coefficient of determination R2 is ∼0.96 and compa-rable to other novel nanodevice-based temperature sensorslike [39], while for carbon-nanotube based sensors alreadyvalues above 0.997 were achieved [40], but this device wasnot ready for an application as fully flexible sensor. Here,TABLE 1. Model and fit parameters for I0 varying between −0.1 nA and−1 nA.also traditional semiconductors like Si or emerging technolo-gies like SiC come into play. There, values >0.999 wereshown in literature [11], [12]. The sensitivity of our sensoris comparable to Si devices as discussed above, while it ishigher than the obtained values of several other innovativenanosensors, like [41]. The observed values of our sensorare summarized in Table 1.V. CONCLUSION AND OUTLOOKWe demonstrated a fully-2D diode based on a MoS2/WSe2heterojunction for temperature sensing in cryogenic regimes.The fitting of the data using a standard diode equation givesa consistent picture describing the sensor behavior seemsconsistent but although the results are promising and theobtained values of the sensitivity are close to that knownfrom Si, i.e., ∼2 mV/K, the linearity of our device’s V-Tcharacteristics needs improvement. As next steps we pro-pose the following: 1) Find and validate a physical devicemodel. It requires more effort since it is much more complex,but it will offer better insights in the device behavior andprediction of the same then the simply fitting approach usedhere. 1) Measure the sensor’s performance at elevated tem-perature and investigate current transport mechanism in thiscase. 2) Improve technology to achieve better contacts, espe-cially WSe2-contact. 3) We will also investigate the influenceof the additional front and back gate, which were not usedfor the measurements shown here. It may be possible totune the electric fields, bands and barriers. 4) Finally, wewill use a more advanced concept for current sensing basedon two diodes driven with different constant currents or dif-ferent active areas, respectively while measuring the voltagedifference. This concept is called “Proportional-To-AbsoluteTemperature” (PTAT) [23], since the saturation currents can-cel each other out leading to an offset V0 of 0 V in idealcase. On the other hand, some non-idealities and processvariations may contribute stronger in the V-T characteristics,but we think this concept is worth for further investigation.364 VOLUME 11, 2023MATTHUS et al.: I-V-T CHARACTERISTICS AND TEMPERATURE SENSOR PERFORMANCEAPPENDIXFIGURE A1. (a) AFM scan of the active region indicating the flakeboundaries of WSe2 and MoS2 flakes. (b) Extracted height profiles in thepositions marked with numbers in (a).REFERENCES[1] E. Huss. “The nobel prize in physics 2010.” Accessed: Apr. 182022. [Online]. Available: https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/2010/press-release/[2] J. Pu, Y. Yomogida, K.-K. Liu, L.-J. Li, Y. Iwasa, andT. Takenobu, “Highly flexible MoS2 thin-film transistors with iongel dielectrics,” Nano Lett., vol. 12, no. 8, pp. 4013–4017, 2012,doi: 10.1021/nl301335q.[3] T.-Y. Chang et al., “Ultra-broadband, high speed, and high-quantum-efficiency photodetectors based on black phosphorus,” ACSAppl. Mater. 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De gemaakte PDF-documenten kunnen worden geopend met Acrobat en Adobe Reader 5.0 en hoger.)    /NOR <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>    /PTB <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>    /SUO <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>    /SVE <FEFF0041006e007600e4006e00640020006400650020006800e4007200200069006e0073007400e4006c006c006e0069006e006700610072006e00610020006f006d002000640075002000760069006c006c00200073006b006100700061002000410064006f006200650020005000440046002d0064006f006b0075006d0065006e007400200073006f006d00200070006100730073006100720020006600f60072002000740069006c006c006600f60072006c00690074006c006900670020007600690073006e0069006e00670020006f006300680020007500740073006b007200690066007400650072002000610076002000610066006600e4007200730064006f006b0075006d0065006e0074002e002000200053006b006100700061006400650020005000440046002d0064006f006b0075006d0065006e00740020006b0061006e002000f600700070006e00610073002000690020004100630072006f0062006100740020006f00630068002000410064006f00620065002000520065006100640065007200200035002e00300020006f00630068002000730065006e006100720065002e>    /ENU (Use these settings to create PDFs that match the "Recommended"  settings for PDF Specification 4.01)  >>>> setdistillerparams<<  /HWResolution [600 600]  /PageSize [612.000 792.000]>> setpagedevice