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[Katsuhiko Ariga](https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2445-2955)

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REVIEWJournal of Inorganic and Organometallic Polymers and Materials (2024) 34:2926–2947https://doi.org/10.1007/s10904-024-03065-9vectorially. This is a highly evolved form of functional material system. It can also regarded as a highly organized composite system. The goal of material chemistry for func-tional materials is to construct such material systems.Highly functional composites should not be merely mixed with ingredients. It is organized with extreme preci-sion. The fundamental technologies to do this in an artificial system include the synthetic chemistry of the substances that make the component units, the science and techniques for assembling them, and the technology for analysing their nanostructures. Humanity has developed those elemental technologies. Organic chemistry [4–8], inorganic chemistry [9–13], coordination chemistry [14–18], polymer chemistry [19–23], material chemistry [24–28], and biochemistry [29–33] are still being developed as creating units or substances. Methodologies such as self-assembly by supramolecular chemistry [34–37] are used to bring them in organization. Thin film technologies such as self-assembled monolayer (SAM) [38–42], Langmuir-Blodgett (LB) method [43–47], layer-by-layer (LbL) assembly [48–52] are also used. Syn-thesis of ordered porous materials such as metal-organic 1  IntroductionBiological systems that has a highly sophisticated structures and perform efficient and highly selective functions can be said to be the ultimate forms of functional material systems. The characteristic feature of a bio-functional system is that components with various functions work together [1–3]. These multi-components are not simply mixed together, but are rationally arranged. Their organizational structures are hierarchical and asymmetrical. Accordingly, material and information transformations are performed continuously and sequentially. Energies are integrated and electrons flow  
 Katsuhiko ArigaARIGA.Katsuhiko@nims.go.jp1  Research Center for Materials Nanoarchitectonics (MANA), National Institute for Materials Science (NIMS), 1-1 Namiki, Tsukuba 305-0044, Ibaraki, Japan2  Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 5-1-5 Kashiwanoha, Kashiwa 277-8561, Chiba, JapanAbstractThe characteristic feature of a biofunctional system is that components with various functions work together. These multi-components are not simply mixed together, but are rationally arranged. The fundamental technologies to do this in an artificial system include the synthetic chemistry of the substances that make the component unit, the science and tech-niques for assembling them, and the technology for analyzing their nanoostructures. A new concept, nanoarchitectonics, can play this role. Nanoarchitectonics is a post-nanotechnology concept that involves building functional materials that reflect the nanostructures. In particular, the approach of combining and building multiple types of components to create composite materials is an area where nanoarchitectonics can be a powerful tool. This review summarizes such examples and related composite studies. In particular, examples are presented in the areas of catalyst & photocatalyst, energy, sensing & environment, bio & medical, and various other functions and applications to illustrate the potential for a wide range of applications. In order to show the various stages of development, the examples are not only state-of-the-art, but also include those that are successful developments of existing research. Finally, a summary of the examples and a brief discussion of future challenges in nanoarchitectonics will be given. Nanoarchitectonics is applicable to all materials and aims to establish the ultimate methodology of materials science.Keywords  Nanoarchitectonics · Composite · Energy · Environmental · BiomedicalReceived: 4 March 2024 / Accepted: 6 March 2024 / Published online: 16 April 2024© The Author(s) 2024Composite Nanoarchitectonics Towards Method for Everything in Materials ScienceKatsuhiko Ariga1,21 3http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1007/s10904-024-03065-9&domain=pdf&date_stamp=2024-3-26Journal of Inorganic and Organometallic Polymers and Materials (2024) 34:2926–2947frameworks (MOFs) [53–57], covalent organic frameworks (COFs) [58–62], mesoporous materials [63–67] is also useful. Not limited to these typical materials forms, vari-ous integrated structures are used for advanced functions including sensors [68–72], devices [73–77], batteries [78–82], fuel cells [83–87], solar cells [88–92], supercapaci-tors [93–97], and so on. Engineering fabrication techniques such as lithography also have a wide range of applications [98–102]. Even more important is the technology to anal-yse nanostructures. An important contribution is made by a series of technologies featured in nanotechnology [103–105]. These include structural observation at the atomic and molecular level [106–109], manipulation [110–113], and evaluation [114–117] of physical properties at the nano-scopic level. Integrating all of these technologies to create materials is essential for constructing advanced functional material systems.A new concept, nanoarchitectonics, can play this role (Fig. 1) [116–121]. Nanoarchitectonics can be considered as post-nanotechnology [122, 123]. Just as Richard Feynman initiated nanotechnology in the mid-20th century [124, 125], Masakazu Aono proposed nanoarchitectonics in the early 21st century [126, 127]. Nanoarchitectonics is an interdis-ciplinary concept rather than an entirely new concept. It has the role of developing a group of functional materials that rationally reflect the nanostructure by integrating the exist-ing material science with the nanoscale science/technology of nanotechnology. The functional material system will be built from units such as atoms, molecules, and nanomateri-als, taking advantage of the characteristics of nanostructures [128, 129]. The process uses elements such as atomic and molecular manipulation, physical and chemical material transformation, self-assembly/self-organization, alignment and organization by external fields and actions, biochemical processes, and nano and micro fabrication techniques [130]. These elemental technologies are selected and combined to architect materials from nano.This methodology is widely applied regardless of the material used or its intended application. For example, recent papers advocating nanoarchitectonics can be found in a wide range of fields. In addition to application-oriented areas such as catalysis [131–135], sensors [136–140], devices [141–145], energy production [146–150], energy storage [151–155], environmental response [156–160], drug delivery [161–165], and biomedical applications [166–170], there are also fundamental areas such as mate-rial synthesis [171–176], structural control [177–181], the exploration of physical phenomena [182–186], relatively basic biochemical studies [187–191], and research on cel-lular interactions [192–196]. Since all matter is principally composed of atoms and molecules, the methodology of building matter from atoms and molecules is applicable to all material synthesis. It could be likened to the ultimate the-ory of everything in physics [197], and nanoarchitectonics could be called a method for everything in materials science [198, 199]. This concept of nanoarchitectonics, which is applicable to all materials, is more suitable for the construc-tion of multi-component functional material systems such as composites.Now, the ideal functional material is to create complex composites like biological systems. To achieve advanced functionality, the components must be rationally organized, rather than simply a collection of functional molecular units. Their structure is asymmetric and hierarchical. The process flows accordingly in a continuous and directional manner. In assembling such hierarchical structures, nanoarchitecton-ics has advantages [200]. In nanoarchitectonics, materials are built by combining several unit processes. Therefore, Fig. 1  Outline of nanoarchitec-tonics concept: meaning and procedure 1 32927Journal of Inorganic and Organometallic Polymers and Materials (2024) 34:2926–2947nanoarchitectonics approaches easily create hierarchical structures than self-assembly by simple equilibrium pro-cesses [201]. It also has an aptitude for incorporating mul-tiple components. Another feature is the harmonization of actions. It is nano interactions that are the origin of nano-architectonics. There is a degree of uncertainty involved [202]. In the nano processes of nanoarchitectonics, uncer-tainties such as thermal fluctuations, stochastic distribu-tions, and quantum effects can be included. Thus, many effects will not simply add up, but will work in a jointly har-monized manner [203]. This is similar to what happens in bio-functional research, where many effects harmonize with each other to achieve advanced functionality. If the goal is to develop highly functionalized composite materials, it is necessary to incorporate such harmonization of actions.Combining the concept of nanoarchitectonics with multi-component composites can lead to the architecture of highly advanced functional material systems, such as those found in biological systems. The concept of composite nanoar-chitectonics is a long way from perfection, but there have been several reports that provide the beginnings of the con-cept. This review illustrates the reported nanoarchitectonics research on composites and some related functional com-posite materials. To show the wide range of applications and potential, recent examples are categorized as (i) catalyst & photocatalyst, (ii) energy, (iii) sensing & environment, (iv) bio & medical, and (v) various other functions and applica-tions. In order to show the various stages of development, the examples are not only state-of-the-art, but also include those that are successful developments of existing research. Finally, a summary of the examples and a brief discussion of future challenges in nanoarchitectonics will be given. Nanoarchitectonics is applicable to all materials and aims to establish the ultimate methodology of materials science.2  Catalyst & PhotocatalystVarious functions require the fulfilment of several necessary elements. To satisfy these elements, nanoarchitectonics, which is a composite of two different materials, is effective. For example, a catalytic function requires two elements: the ability to promote reactions and the structural selectivity of substrates and products. As one that satisfies such properties, Fujiwara reported on an active catalyst for the production of aromatic hydrocarbons by CO2 hydrogenation [204]. In this catalyst, a composite catalyst consisting of Fe-Zn oxide and a zeolite, H-ZSM-5, was used. This composite catalyst is very effective for the selective formation of aromatic hydro-carbons. The narrow pore size of the zeolite H-ZSM-5 pro-vides excellent geometry selectivity of the reaction, which was also achieved in the methanol-hydrocarbon reaction of CO2 hydrogenation. Such catalytic technology will contrib-ute to carbon recycling. This will be a necessary technology to realize a sustainable low-carbon society.Shimakoshi and co-workers nanoarchitectonized high-performance visible light-driven hybrid catalysts from vita-min B12 complexes derived from natural vitamin B12, earth metal ions, and titanium dioxide (Fig. 2) [205]. First, metal ions (Cu2+, Ni2+, Fe2+, Zn2+, Mn2+, Al3+, Mg2+, etc.) were modified on the TiO2 surface. This resulted in an effective response to visible light. Furthermore, vitamin B12 com-plexes were loaded on the surface. In this way, the nano-architectonically modified catalyst can promote visible light-driven reactions without the use of precious rhodium. In particular, B12-Mg2+/TiO2 showed the highest catalytic activity among the prepared samples. This is because elec-tron transfer to the B12 complex occurs efficiently because no electron transfer to the modified magnesium side occurs. It was also shown that useful chemical products, N,N-diethyl-3-methylbenzeamide and N,N-diethylformamide, can be prepared in high yield under visible light irradia-tion. Such performance is useful for fine chemical synthesis using sustainable solar energy.Fig. 2  Hybrid catalysts from vitamin B12 complexes derived from natural vitamin B12, earth metal ions, and titanium dioxide that can promote visible light-driven reactions. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [205]. Copyright 2022 Oxford Univer-sity Press 1 32928Journal of Inorganic and Organometallic Polymers and Materials (2024) 34:2926–2947electrostatic energy storage in modern electronic and electri-cal systems. Although nanoarchitectonics approaches with polymer nanocomposites have been used to improve per-formance, they have the drawbacks of reduced energy den-sity and lower discharge efficiency at temperatures above 150  °C. Creating ultra-small inorganic clusters, as in this study, can introduce richer and deeper traps into composite dielectrics compared to conventional polymer/nanoparticle blends. Due to this effect, high-temperature capacitance performance was achieved up to 200  °C. Such composite nanoarchitectonics of polymer/inorganic clusters is useful for high-temperature dielectric energy storage in practi-cal applications of power devices and electronic devices. Combined with the synthetic advantages of inexpensive precursors and one-pot synthesis, this could be a promising method for tuning the high-temperature capacitance perfor-mance of polymeric dielectrics.The development of multifunctional electrode materials is an important approach for practical applications in energy storage and conversion devices. For example, the construc-tion of composite materials based on metal-organic frame work (MOF) is considered a promising strategy. It is impor-tant to improve the conductivity of MOF materials through a rational nanoarchitectonics approach. Jiao, Chen, and co-workers have created composites of iron-based MOFs and ultra-thin Co(OH)2 nanosheets by in situ hydrothermal strat-egies (Fig. 3) [209]. This created a hollow, interconnected porous network structure. Structural and morphological analysis confirms that the Co(OH)2 nanosheets are uni-formly anchored on the Fe-based MOF, forming a hollow composite. A large specific surface area with a hierarchical porous structure is provided for electrolyte storage. There-fore, the diffusion of ions is promoted, and the reaction rate of the active material is greatly improved. The hollow struc-ture can expose more active surfaces. The enhanced electro-lyte penetration may improve the utilization of iron-based MOFs. The composite materials developed in this study showed excellent performance in both supercapacitors and oxygen evolution reaction. Such nanoarchitectonized com-posite materials can be used in electrode materials with excellent performance. They also have great potential for development in the field of electrochemistry. It will provide inspiration for future energy storage and conversion device designs.Wu, Gong, and co-workers have shown how black phos-phorus quantum dots can be efficiently used in lithium bat-teries under the concept of composite nanoarchitectonics for efficient lithium storage [210]. In this study, the goal is to obtain high energy density while improving stability. Black phosphorus quantum dots were co-precipitated into pores matching the size of the cobalt/iron Prussian blue analogues of MOFs. The composite nanoarchitectonics was achieved Hakamy, Abd-Elnaiem, and co-workers reported on nanoarchitectonics of nickel dimethylglyoxime/γ-alumina composites [206]. In this approach, nickel dimethylglyox-ime is synthesized on γ-alumina, which is used as a catalyst, using a direct impregnation method. Using this catalyst, the photocatalytic degradation performance for methylene blue and methyl orange was investigated. The photodegradation performance of these dyes was significantly enhanced by compositing, and the Ni microcrystals or Ni nanospheres on the γ-alumina support were analysed as being distributed in a single phase and/or in a homogeneous manner. This sup-port structure enhanced thermal stability and photocatalytic degradation of dyes. In particular, the nanosized form of the γ-alumina catalyst, with its large surface area, is useful for a variety of applications. It may also be suitable for degra-dation of other dyes. Furthermore, the nanoarchitectonized composite would be suitable for a variety of applications, such as sensing, in addition to catalytic applications.Abd-Elnaiem et al. reported on graphene oxide-based composite photocatalysts under the concept of compos-ite nanoarchitectonics of graphene oxide [207]. Graphene oxide-bound Au and ZnO nanocomposites were synthesized by a modified Hummers method and an ultrasound-assisted solution method. Photocatalytic degradation of methylene blue was investigated under simulated visible-ultraviolet light irradiation. Porous graphene oxide nanoparticles showed the greatest efficiency and performance in photo-degradation. For example, the photocatalytic efficiency for the removal of methylene blue from wastewater reached 97% for the porous graphene oxide nanoparticle catalyst. The best fit for the photocatalytic degradation mechanism was adsorption by an intraparticle diffusion kinetics model. The use of such composite catalysts for the purification of organic dyes is of interest from economic, safety, and envi-ronmental perspectives.3  EnergyExquisite composite nanoarchitectonics of various compo-nents can improve material performance. This methodology has also come in handy for energy-related applications. Li and co-workers have prepared polymer/metal oxide clus-ter composites based on a site-isolation strategy [208]. This co-polymerization strategy allows the preparation of polymer/inorganic cluster composites with ultrasmall-sized inorganic phases. The maximum probable diameter of the nanoarchitectonized aluminium oxide clusters is 2.2  nm. This technique does not require an auxiliary dispersion step. Nevertheless, the clusters are uniformly dispersed in the polymer matrix. As background, polymer dielectrics need to operate at high temperatures to meet the demands of 1 32929Journal of Inorganic and Organometallic Polymers and Materials (2024) 34:2926–2947composite materials. As a result, this could serve as a guide-line for developing lithium batteries with higher capacity density and cycle stability.Nickel-rich layered oxides are widely used as cathode materials in energy-dense lithium-ion batteries. However, these chemistries, based on the parent compound LiNiO2, are known to be very sensitive to the ambient environ-ment and react readily with moisture and carbon dioxide. This characteristic leads to a significant reduction in per-formance. To address this issue, Hersam and co-workers prepared LiNiO2 cathode particles with a uniform coat-ing of a hydrophobic barrier layer composed of graphene and ethylcellulose (Fig.  4) [211]. This hydrophobic coat-ing reduced contact between atmospheric moisture and the LiNiO2 surface, minimizing the generation of lithium impu-rities. The obtained results demonstrate the breaking of the with different amounts of black phosphorus quantum dots encapsulated in the pores of the Co/Fe Prussian blue ana-logue. The morphology and particle size of the composite were changed without changing the crystal structure of the MOF. The stability of the composite with black phosphorus quantum dots was significantly improved. Excellent electro-chemical performance was demonstrated in lithium batter-ies. The close contact between black phosphorus quantum dots and Co/Fe catalyst sites promoted rapid transfer of lithium ions between metal sites. The lithium storage capac-ity was also increased due to the special molecular struc-ture of black phosphorus, which forms P-N bonds. The material developed here with black phosphorus quantum dots in Prussian blue analogues encapsulated as electrodes exhibited higher capacity density and longer cycle stabil-ity than batteries using conventional Prussian blue analogue Fig. 4  LiNiO2 (LNO) cathode particles with a uniform coat-ing of a hydrophobic barrier layer composed of graphene and ethylcellulose followed by pyrolysis process. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [211]. Copyright 2023 American Chemical Society Fig. 3  Composites of iron-based MOFs and ultra-thin Co(OH)2 nanosheets by in situ hydrothermal strategies having a large specific surface area with a hierarchical porous structure for electrolyte stor-age. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [209]. Copyright 2023 Royal Society of Chemistry 1 32930Journal of Inorganic and Organometallic Polymers and Materials (2024) 34:2926–2947Zn powder, poor connections due to point contacts between particles can be avoided. Thereby improving the conductiv-ity of the electrode. It also provides more nucleation sites for Zn deposition. As a result, the symmetric cell exhibits tremendous stability. The application of powder metal-lurgy in this study provides new ideas for the preparation of high-performance and low-cost Zn-based aqueous bat-tery anodes. Potential applications for large-scale practical preparation and renewable energy storage are suggested.To achieve sufficient photoelectrochemical water split-ting performance, it is essential to improve charge sepa-ration/transport efficiency. In particular, various interface engineering strategies to mitigate charge recombination are essential. Zhang, Du, Lu, and co-workers demonstrated an effective strategy that can synchronously regulate the simul-taneous transfer of electrons and holes in different directions on the photoanodes to improve photoelectrochemical per-formance [213]. Figure 6 shows that monodisperse MXene quantum dots were obtained by HF etching, exfoliation, and hydrothermal treatment. Next, ZnIn2S4 nanosheet arrays were synthesized on FTO by hydrothermal method. Then, MXene quantum dots and α-Fe2O3 nanodots were modified Ni-rich limit of the layered lithium transition metal oxide family. This work establishes a scalable strategy for improv-ing the environmental stability of Ni-rich cathode materials. Demonstrating this approach for the ultimate nickel-rich chemistries is likely to be generalizable to a wide range of environmentally sensitive battery materials. In addition, it is expected to be applicable to other related Ni-rich chem-istries that are widely used in electric vehicles and related energy storage technologies.As a promising candidate for grid-scale energy storage, Zn-based aqueous batteries have shown high potentials due to their intrinsic safety, outstanding theoretical energy density, and cost-effectiveness. However, a negative factor against practical application is the performance degradation due to dendrite formation, side reactions, and corrosion of the anode, etc. To address this issue, Zhang, Han, and co-workers have fabricated a new Zn matrix composite anode with an implanted 3D carbon network by powder metal-lurgy (Fig. 5) [212]. The internal carbon network provides a continuous electron transfer channel. Through optimization of the surface electric field distribution, highly reversible Zn deposition can be achieved. By filling the gaps in the Fig. 6  Process for photoelectric conversion devices; monodisperse MXene quantum dots were obtained by HF etching, exfoliation, and hydrothermal treatment; next, ZnIn2S4 nanosheet arrays were synthe-sized on FTO by hydrothermal method; then, MXene quantum dots and α-Fe2O3 nanodots were modified on the ZnIn2S4 nanosheet surface by spin-coating and solvothermal methods. Reproduced with permis-sion from Ref. [213]. Copyright 2024 Wiley-VCH. Fig. 5  Fabrication of a Zn matrix composite anode with an implanted 3D carbon network by powder metallurgy with the surface electric field distribution through highly reversible Zn deposition. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [212]. Copyright 2024 Wiley-VCH. 1 32931Journal of Inorganic and Organometallic Polymers and Materials (2024) 34:2926–2947chitosan using an in situ polymer oxidation [225]. The nanocomposites for sensor electrodes were prepared using the in situ polymer oxidation pathway. Specifically, glassy carbon electrodes modified with polythiophene/multiwalled carbon nanotubes, chitosan, and CuO were prepared. The modified electrode prepared exhibited a certain range of detection linearity and excessively yielding ion detection at low concentrations. The high Cd(II) detection efficiency of the sensor with this modified glassy carbon electrode can be regarded as a good success story for electrochemical sensor applications.Photocatalytic reduction of Hg2+ under visible light is an important challenge. This can be improved in performance by a composite nanoarchitectonics approach. Alotaibi, under the approach of composite nanoarchitectonics of PtO decorated mesoporous ZrO2, has synthesized mesoporous ZrO2 and PtO by a wet chemical method [226]. The PtO@ZrO2 photocatalyst exhibited high photocatalytic reduction capacity of Hg2+ ions. Characteristically, the addition of PtO enhanced the photoactivity of ZrO2 for Hg2+ removal upon visible light irradiation. Factors such as the reduced band gap of PtO@ZrO2 photocatalyst, broadening of the visible light absorption spectrum, and suppression of charge recombination resulted in superior photoactivity. 1.5% of PtO added to ZrO2 resulted in complete photoreduction of Hg2+ within 1  h after visible light irradiation. The newly developed PtO@ZrO2 photocatalyst in composite nanoar-chitectonics has the potential to be used as an environmen-tally friendly photocatalyst for a variety of environmental transformation phenomena. Moreover, its excellent stabil-ity, permanence, and ability to be used in a wide variety of applications make it a potential candidate for industrial applications.Approaches to remove pollutants and their models from the environment are traditional research, but recognition of their importance remains. Shah and Naglah have developed a powerful material for the removal of dye molecules under the approach of nanoarchitectonics of chitosan/glutaralde-hyde/ZnO [227]. In this study, chitosan was cross-linked with glutaraldehyde in the presence of zinc oxide nanopar-ticles. As a result, a novel composite of chitosan/glutaral-dehyde/zinc oxide was obtained. The nanoarchitectonized composite showed efficient removal ability of eriochrome black T dye from aqueous media. The analysis revealed that the adsorption process of eriochrome black T dye is endo-thermic and spontaneous. It is expected that this complex can be used not only for this dye but also for the removal of various organic and inorganic contaminants.Photothermal membrane distillation is a promising and sustainable approach for desalination and wastewater puri-fication. Wang and co-workers have developed a hydro-gel composite membrane with improved photothermal on the ZnIn2S4 nanosheet surface by spin-coating and solvo-thermal methods to obtain photoelectric conversion devices. The resulting photoelectric conversion device photoanodes have a synergistic combination of α-Fe2O3 nanodots and MXene quantum dots on ZnIn2S4 nanosheets. It has a high photocurrent density and exhibits benchmark photoelectro-chemical performance. The above results are mainly due to the MXene quantum dot capturing and storing electrons from the conduction band of ZnIn2S4, mitigating electron-hole pair recombination and S-O interfacial chemical bonds introduced at the interface between ZnIn2S4 and α-Fe2O3 nanodot efficiently promote carrier transfer. These factors are believed to have led to the photoelectrochemical perfor-mance. These interfacial nanoarchitectonics strategies will provide insights for precisely regulating carrier separation and migration. They will provide a better understanding of interfacial charge separation and provide valuable guidance for the rational design and fabrication of high-performance composite electrode materials.4  Sensing & EnvironmentThere are many social demands in dealing with environ-mental problems, such as sensing hazardous substances [214–218], removing pollutants [219–223], etc. The targets are diverse. Materials nanoarchitectonics with multi-com-ponent components is therefore important for environmen-tal applications. For example, Supreet, Pal, and co-workers have developed a highly responsive and selective metha-nol gas sensor at room temperature under the concept of composite nanoarchitectonics with reduced-graphene oxide and polyaniline [224]. The approach is based on camphor sulfide. As an approach, reduced-graphene oxide-polyani-line nanocomposites were synthesized by a simple chemi-cal oxidation synthesis process in the presence of camphor sulfonic acid. The morphology of the prepared material was observed to be nanoparticles and semi-crystalline in structure. This gas sensor based on polyaniline doped with reduced graphene oxide showed selective high response to methanol vapor. Specifically, the highest response was found at 200 ppm. Furthermore, the sensor showed excel-lent stability of more than 85% even after 180 days of fabri-cation. This cost-effective, responsive, stable, reproducible, and repeatable method may be a good candidate for com-mercial production of methanol vapor sensors.Detection of toxic ion species is an important issue for environmental science. Various composite nanoarchitecton-ics can be used to construct sensors for hazardous metal ions. AL-Refai et al. prepared nanocomposites for sensor electrodes under the concept of composite nanoarchitec-tonics with polythiophene, carbon nanotubes, CuO and 1 32932Journal of Inorganic and Organometallic Polymers and Materials (2024) 34:2926–2947activity and antimicrobial properties of the cobalt complex and chitosan composite were investigated. Spinel cobalt oxide particles with octahedral shape were synthesized by pyrolysis of cobalt(III) complex precursors. This synthesis does not involve the use of harmful solvents, surfactants, or complicated apparatus. Furthermore, the octahedral-shaped spinel cobalt oxide particles were fixed on a chitosan poly-mer to form a composite. The performance of this compos-ite in the photolysis of methylene blue was evaluated. It was found that the regular morphology of octahedral-shaped cobalt spinel oxide particles, appropriate band gap energy, and absorption properties of chitosan are necessary for the enhanced photocatalytic activity of the composite. Further-more, the antibacterial efficiency against two bacteria (E. coli and Staphylococcus aureus) was tested using an agar well diffusion assay. The antimicrobial screening results showed that coating the chitosan polymer with octahedral-shaped spinel cobalt oxide particles enhanced its inhibitory activity against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria.Hydroxyapatite-based nanocomposites have potential for various biological applications. El-Naggar et al. exam-ined nanocomposites of these three components under the title nanoarchitectonics of hydroxyapatite/molybdenum trioxide/graphene oxide composite [230]. Electron micro-scopic analysis and the roughness characteristics observed suggest that utilizing the type and amount of additives to the hydroxyapatite component is a highly effective tactic to tailor a composite suitable for biomedical applications. The optimized triple complex exhibited the highest cell viability against E. coli and Staphylococcus aureus compared to the other compositions.Antibiotic-resistant bacteria are one of the most danger-ous factors causing human disease and endangering public health and social security. One means of controlling this conversion capacity as well as the fouling and moisture resistance required for photothermal membrane distillation (Fig. 7) [228]. The composite membrane exhibits a syner-gistic effect of Ti3C2Tx MXene nanosheets with photother-mal conversion capacity and the tannic acid-Fe3+ network in the hydrogel. As a result, the film exhibits excellent surface self-heating capability. The hydrogel composite membrane has high water vapor flux and high solar efficiency under solar irradiation. It is also resistant to oil fouling and surfac-tant wetting. It can significantly extend the lifetime of mem-branes in the treatment of contaminated salt water. When desalinated with actual seawater, the membrane exhibited stable vapor flux for 100  h, excellent ion rejection, and superior durability. The lifetime of the membranes in treat-ing contaminated salt water could be significantly extended. The developed photothermal distillation membrane has great potential for the production of standard-compliant water.5  Bio & MedicalThe targets of biochemistry and biomedical applications are complex in many cases. Organisms express their functions by processing complex interactions in an integrated man-ner. The materials that can deal with them must also have a certain level of complexity. Therefore, various composite nanoarchitectonics will be a force to be reckoned with in this field.For example, antimicrobial function is a matter of uni-versal importance in the biomedical field. Bahramian and co-workers have raised the concept of nanoarchitectonics of octahedral Co3O4/chitosan composite and investigated the photocatalytic activity and antimicrobial properties of cobalt complexes and chitosan [229]. The photocatalytic Fig. 7  A hydrogel composite membrane with improved pho-tothermal conversion capac-ity as well as the fouling and moisture resistance required for photothermal membrane distil-lation with a synergistic effect of Ti3C2Tx MXene nanosheets with photothermal conversion capacity and the tannic acid-Fe3+ network in the hydrogel. Repro-duced with permission from Ref. [228]. Copyright 2024 American Chemical Society 1 32933Journal of Inorganic and Organometallic Polymers and Materials (2024) 34:2926–2947using cytotoxicity, apoptosis, and flow cytometry. The results showed that the newly developed nanocomposites had improved anticancer activity against the HeLa cell line. It also became a better therapeutic agent for cervical cancer.Spinal cord injury causes permanent loss of sensory and motion function, but effective clinical treatments are needed. In particular, synergistic treatments are urgently needed in clinical practice. Jin, Feng, Wei, and co-workers designed a composite patch for spinal cord injury repair consisting of a nanofiber scaffold and hyaluronic acid hydrogel (Fig. 9) [233]. Compared to traditional invasive treatments, local cellular drug injection, and tissue scaffold implantation, the patch provides a drug-exosome dual release system and may offer a noninvasive method for clinical treatment of spinal cord injury patients. The compound patch suppresses the inflammatory response by polarizing macrophages from M1 to M2 type. And it increases neuronal survival by inhib-iting neuronal apoptosis after spinal cord injury. These stud-ies demonstrate the translation of nanoarchitectonics ideas into clinical applications.Living cells and organisms can be regarded as complex composites composed of numerous biomolecules. They perform complex biological functions by controlling their concentration and spatial distribution in space and time. Against this background, synthetic multi-network hydro-gels that mimic extracellular matrices have attracted much attention. Kubota reported their results on supramolecular-polymer composite hydrogels in their recent review article [234]. These gels can be regarded as one of a new class of multi-network hydrogels. These composite hydrogels can problem is the use of porous cellulose and other materi-als to inhibit bacterial membranes and metabolism. This methodology can also be a sustainable strategy for treat-ing bacteria-contaminated water. Under the strategy com-posite nanoarchitectonics of cellulose with porphyrin-Zn, Chen and co-workers have developed a simple, reusable, and environmentally friendly material for antimicrobial and adsorption applications [231]. They has developed porous, light-responsive fibers to develop a simple, reusable, and environmentally friendly material for antimicrobial and adsorption applications. Specifically, photoresponsive fibers were synthesized from covalently bonded compos-ites of porous cellulose and porphyrin derivatives (Fig. 8). The composite exhibited excellent inhibition and adsorption against both Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. It showed excellent inhibition against both Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria. It was suggested that the bacterial membrane is disrupted via porphyrin-zinc nanospheres. The porous rod-like structural fibers are expected to be appli-cable for bacterial inhibition and filtration.Saranya et al. developed composites with anticancer properties using an approach called nanoarchitectonics of cerium oxide/zinc oxide/graphene oxide composites [232]. Using an ultrasonic approach, they developed a material based on cerium oxide/zinc oxide/graphene oxide nanocom-posites. The nanocomposites exhibited smoother sheet-like micromorphology. Using antiproliferation assay tests, they evaluated the elimination anticancer ability of these nano-systems against HeLa cell lines at various doses and vari-ous culture intervals. Anticancer properties were validated Fig. 8  Photoresponsive fibers synthesized from covalently bonded composites of porous cellulose and porphyrin derivatives for a simple, reusable, and environmentally friendly material for antimicrobial and adsorption applications. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [231]. Copyright 2023 Springer-Nature. 1 32934Journal of Inorganic and Organometallic Polymers and Materials (2024) 34:2926–2947were constructed in situ to confine and stabilize the Au-Pt nanozymes to enhance their mimetic activity. On top of that, pluronic F127 was modified on the surface to improve the hydrophilicity and biocompatibility of the composite. After internalization by tumour cells, the Cu(II)-MOF shell is degraded by endogenous acidity and glutathione. The nano-zymes are exposed for cascade catalytic chemodynamic therapy. Exposed Au-Pt nanozymes interact with intertu-moral H2O2 to form O2 via catalase-like activity. H2O2 with glucose oxidase-like properties for ·OH formation was gen-erated as a mimetic peroxidase for cascade chemodynamic therapy. Laser irradiation at 808  nm induced local hyper-thermia and promoted catalytic activity for ·OH formation. The high photothermal conversion capacity also enhanced chemodynamic therapy, and Cu2+ ions consumed glutathi-one to further improve chemodynamic therapy efficiency as an enhancement of cascade catalytic tumour therapy. Three-in-one nanozyme systems improve the efficacy of tumour therapy and minimize side effects on normal tissue. This is a new paradigm with drug-free single nanoteams.6  Various Other Functions and ApplicationsThe possibilities of materials assembled by composite nano-architectonics are enormous. The range of applications is also diverse. From basic research to applications can be found. The following are examples of some of these studies in various fields.rationally integrate the stimulus response of supramolecu-lar gels with the stiffness of polymer gels. Furthermore, supramolecular-polymer composite hydrogels have poten-tial applications in controlled release of protein biopharma-ceuticals. Supramolecular-polymer composite hydrogels can incorporate functional molecules such as enzymes or their inhibitors as a matrix. This allows for the release of protein biopharmaceuticals in response to antibodies. Supramolecular-polymer composite hydrogels are expected to be the next generation of smart and responsive soft mate-rials for biomedical applications including tissue engineer-ing and regenerative medicine. Thus, the spatiotemporally controlled fabrication of functional composite soft materi-als will produce a variety of functions. This includes bio-medical applications such as 3D controlled release of drugs/proteins, construction of hierarchical organoids, and devel-opment of implantable/injectable gel devices.Natural bio-systems skilfully use cascade reactions. Mimicking the processes of this cascade is a highly attrac-tive target. However, orderly assembly of different enzyme-like functions is not always easy. Cheng, Wang, Yin, and co-workers have developed a composite with three-in-one functionality (Fig.  10) [235]. In this composite, a single gold-platinum nanozyme provides oxygen as a mimetic catalase. It also produces H2O2 through glucose oxidase-like properties. In addition, it initiates a cascade conversion for ·OH generation as a mimetic peroxidase for chemody-namic therapy. Metastable Cu2O nanoparticles were used as scaffolds to immobilize ultrasmall Au-Pt nanozymes. MOF was used to encapsulate the nanozymes. Porous MOF shells Fig. 9  A composite patch for spinal cord injury repair consist-ing of a nanofiber scaffold and hyaluronic acid hydrogel. Repro-duced with permission from Ref. [233]. Copyright 2023 American Chemical Society 1 32935Journal of Inorganic and Organometallic Polymers and Materials (2024) 34:2926–2947Cu/Wood layers with different electro-magnetic proper-ties induced multiple reflections at their interfaces. This promoted absorption attenuation and enhanced the electro-magnetic shielding effect. It was verified that this multilayer composite material can block more than 99.99% of incident electromagnetic waves.Lightweight structural materials with various combina-tions of high stiffness, high strength, high toughness, and high hardness have a wide range of uses. Although the development of such materials is highly desired, they are not always easy to fabricate artificially. On the other hand, some biological structural materials have hierarchically heterogeneous structures bounded by gradient interfaces. Structures ingeniously integrate multiple mutually exclusive mechanical properties. Gao, Yu, and co-workers proposed a simple bottom-up approach to fabricate such materials by combining continuous nanofiber-assisted evaporation-induced self-assembly, stacking, pressure-free sintering, and resin infiltration method (Fig.  11) [238]. They have produced a large scale ceramic-resin composite inspired by pearls with a tunable heterogeneous structure. This ceramic-resin composite has a tough, pearl-like body and a rigid, hard outer surface. A gradient intermediate layer was intro-duced between these two parts to provide a gradual tran-sition between adjacent dissimilar layers. This effectively mitigated the mismatch of properties between the different layers. As a result, mutually exclusive mechanical proper-ties were successfully integrated into a single material. The Takaguchi, Orita, and co-workers investigated photo-electron transfer reactions in composites of dyes on carbon nanotubes [236]. Namely, visible light absorbing anthrylene and ferrocenoyl substituted acetylene dyes were compos-ited with single-walled carbon nanotubes. Specifically, copper-catalysed dimerization reactions of anthrylene and ferrocenoyl-substituted terminal ethynes were used. In addi-tion, composite one-pot nanoarchitectonics was achieved by subsequent adsorption of butadiyne dye onto single-walled carbon nanotubes. The dye-nanotube composite was dis-persed in water using an amphiphilic poly(amidoamine) dendrimer. In this composite, irradiation with visible light (> 422 nm) allowed the transfer of electrons from 1-benzyl-1,4-dihydronicotinamide to methyl viologen dichloride. This compositing methodology of adsorbing anthrylene and ferrocenoyl will pave the way to novel visible-light organic dyes to photocurrent conversion.In the concept of micro-nanoarchitectonics of electroless Cu/Ni composite materials based on wood, Pan, Huang, and co-workers fabricated Cu-Ni multilayer composites by a simple electroless Cu and Ni method on wood surfaces [237]. As materials based on wood, Cu-Ni multilayer com-posites were fabricated by a simple electroless Cu and Ni method on wood surfaces. Wood was composited by two times electroless Cu and one time electroless Ni to obtain an ideal surface roughness profile. The metallic Cu and Ni were embedded closely together on the surface of the wood, forming a dense composite layer. The three Ni/Cu Cu/Cu Fig. 10  A composite with three-in-one functionality that improves the efficacy of tumour therapy and minimize side effects on normal tissue. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [235]. Copyright 2024 Wiley-VCH. 1 32936Journal of Inorganic and Organometallic Polymers and Materials (2024) 34:2926–2947cellulose showed a reinforcing effect below their melting temperature and a decreasing effect above the melting tem-perature. This remarkable temperature response behaviour occurs because poly(stearyl methacrylate) particles act as an effective reinforcing filler in the material in the hard state and have little effect on the mechanical strength of the sup-port network in the soft state. The responsiveness of the composite gel can be adjusted simply by varying the amount of poly(stearyl methacrylate). Increasing the amount of incorporated poly(stearyl methacrylate) particles wid-ened the difference between the hard and soft states of the methodology presented here paves the way for the design of advanced bio-inspired heterogeneous materials for diverse structural and functional applications. It is expected that advanced materials with diverse functions, not only struc-tural, will be designed and manufactured on an industrial scale.Uyama and co-workers developed a hydrogel that can switch mechanical strength depending on temperature by incorporating poly(stearyl methacrylate) as a response domain in bacterial cellulose as a support hydrogel (Fig. 12) [239]. Poly(stearyl methacrylate) particles in bacterial Fig. 12  A hydrogel that can switch mechanical strength depending on temperature by incorporating poly(stearyl methacrylate) as a response domain in bacterial cellulose as a support hydrogel. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [239]. Copyright 2023 Oxford University Press Fig. 11  A simple bottom-up approach to fabricate lightweight struc-tural materials with high stiffness, high strength, high toughness, and high hardness by combining continuous nanofiber-assisted evapora-tion-induced self-assembly, stacking, pressure-free sintering, and resin infiltration method. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [238]. Copyright 2023 Wiley-VCH. 1 32937Journal of Inorganic and Organometallic Polymers and Materials (2024) 34:2926–2947These multifaceted high functionalities are expected to con-tribute to the smart materials industry.Kobayashi and co-workers prepared Eu(III) composite materials from europium compounds and tetramethylam-monium acetate using a solvent-free mechanochemical process [241]. The composite material was found to have a bimetallic structure that functions as a bridge molecule between multiple Eu(III) complexes. The composite exhib-its outstanding photoluminescence performance and excel-lent circular polarization activity. It also exhibits thermal stability. Due to the convenience, efficiency, and sustain-ability of green chemistry, the solvent-free nanoarchitecton-ics of luminescent lanthanide materials is highly promising.Miyazaki and Yamada prepared praseodymium oxide particle-embedded composite films using praseodymium nitrate and urethane resin as starting materials [242]. By irradiating the prepared composite films with ultraviolet light, composite films containing Pr6O11 nanoparticles of various particle sizes can be obtained. This does not require a heating process at high temperatures, as is common in the preparation of praseodymium-doped glass, as UV irra-diation can form praseodymium oxide nanoparticles in the composite films. The resulting composite film exhibited a composite. The development of such strength-responsive materials will facilitate the industrial utility of hydrogels as artificial muscles and soft robotic components.Hydrogel materials show promise for use in a variety of fields, including flexible electronic devices, bio-tissue engi-neering, and wound dressings. Gao and co-workers have developed hydrogels with the synergistic effects of hydro-gen bonding, metal coordination bonding, and electrostatic interactions (Fig. 13) [240]. Based on these multiple syn-ergistic effects, composite hydrogels have high mechanical strength, rapid self-healing, and efficient self-healing capa-bilities. The hydrogels were prepared by a simple one-pot method. A homogeneous prepolymer solution containing branched polyethyleneimine, acrylic acid, glycerol, zirco-nyl chloride octahydrate, photoinitiator, and water was dis-persed in a glass container and polymerization was initiated by UV irradiation. Because of the multiple reversible effects at work, hydrogels have excellent self-healing capabilities. For example, a disrupted hydrogel achieved 95% self-heal-ing within 4 h at room temperature. Composite hydrogels had programmable and reversible shape transformation properties. It also exhibited outstanding fatigue resistance properties. The introduction of glycerol gave the hydro-gel excellent antifreeze and moisture retention properties. Fig. 13  Hydrogels with the synergistic effects of hydrogen bonding, metal coordination bonding, and electrostatic interactions. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [240]. Copyright 2023 Royal Society of Chemistry 1 32938Journal of Inorganic and Organometallic Polymers and Materials (2024) 34:2926–2947composed of a biodegradable elastomer, poly(l-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone), and biocompatible/biodegradable nanopar-ticles, polytetrafluoroethylene and silicon dioxide. The micro-pattern reduces the diffusion area of water molecules. The embedded nanoparticles block water permeation, which synergistically enhances the water barrier performance. In the initial stage of exposure to water, the surface repelled the wetting of water droplets. Subsequently, the nanoparticles embedded in the polymer matrix physically inhibited water penetration. These synergistic effects lengthen the timescale for water molecules to reach the electronics. The compos-ite for stretchable bioabsorbable electronics acts as a base encapsulating film. It will be able to ensure stable device functionality over a long period of time.The development of polydimethylsiloxane elastomers with high self-healing efficiency and excellent mechanical properties is a very attractive research target. Zhang, He, and co-workers have created composite elastomers based on polydimethylsiloxane with ultrafast light-controlled heal-ing capability and toughness (Fig. 16) [245]. The dynamic bond breakdown and reconstruction and the strengthening effect of the carbon nanotubes contained in the composite elastomer are observed. Therefore, the composite elastomer exhibited excellent fracture toughness derived from good yield strength and elongation. Furthermore, with the help of dynamic polymer/filler interfacial interactions, carbon nanotubes can quickly and directly heat the damaged part of the composite and achieve ultra-fast repair. As a result, the PL property at 605 nm when excited at 444 nm, correspond-ing to the photoluminescence of the 1D2->3H4 transition of Pr3+.Electrochromic devices have a variety of applications, including energy-saving devices and displays. Under the policy of facile nanoarchitectonics of electrochromic devices, Kim, You, and co-workers have created electro-chromic devices using transparent bioplastic composite substrates (Fig.  14) [243]. Specifically, novel electrochro-mic devices based on poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT)/2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxide cellulose nanofiber (TEMPO-CNF)/epoxy composite materials were fabricated by simple solution nanoarchitectonics by simple solution cast polymerization. The PEDOT layer (PEDOT/TEMPO-CNF/epoxy) coated on the TEMPO-CNF/epoxy substrate functions as a conductive electrode. It showed a reversible colour change between light blue (translucent state) and dark blue (coloured state) depending on the redox potential. In other words, a reversible colour switch between light blue and dark blue could be caused. Such a composite nanoarchitectonics approach could be a simple fabrication route for various energy-saving smart windows and high-contrast displays.Effective waterproofing or encapsulation systems are essential for reliable and durable operation of electronic devices, etc. Hwang and co-workers have developed a stretchable, bioabsorbable encapsulants (Fig. 15) [244]. The composite has a stretchable biodegradable array of pillars Fig. 14  Electrochromic devices using transparent bioplastic com-posite substrates based on poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT)/2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxide cellulose nanofiber (TEMPO-CNF)/epoxy composite materials fabricated by simple solu-tion nanoarchitectonics by simple solution cast polymerization. Repro-duced with permission from Ref. [243]. Copyright 2023 Elsevier 1 32939Journal of Inorganic and Organometallic Polymers and Materials (2024) 34:2926–2947structures at different length scales. The majority of the film is made of a polymer matrix and nanoparticle filler. The pore size of the polymer matrix is designed to be compara-ble to the wavelength of sunlight (400–2000 nm). Sunlight is strongly scattered at the interface between the surface and the interior according to the difference in refractive index. Nanoparticle fillers are added to adjust the infrared radiation properties of the film; ZnO nanoparticles allow for infrared transparency. SiO2 particles also increase the IR emissivity. Air fills the tiny valleys on the film surface, which reduces solid-liquid adhesion and makes the film superhydropho-bic. This design and manufacturing approach will aid in the long-term operation of passive radiative cooling applica-tions because of its simplicity and versatility.Wang and coworkers have developed composite materi-als with good electromagnetic wave absorption properties by Nanoarchitectonics of SiC/multilayer graphene com-posite powders [247]. Specifically, SiC/multilayer gra-phene composite powders were synthesized by a simple catalyst-assisted carbon thermal reduction method using silicon dioxide and expanded graphite. Graphene has a unique internal microstructure, high dielectric loss, and self-repair time is significantly reduced. In other words, this dual reversible network nanoarchitectonics strategy suc-cessfully reconciles the conflicting properties of mechanical performance and self-healing efficiency. Such materials can be expected to have ultra-fast self-healing efficiency, capa-ble of completing the self-repair process in a few minutes. The materials will have excellent toughness and self-heal-ing brains. It will encourage a variety of further practical applications, such as remote freeze/thaw materials. The composite elastomer has potential applications as a remote de-icing surface.Daytime passive radiative cooling is a promising meth-odology for reducing energy demand and mitigating global warming. However, surface contamination due to dust and bacteria deposition hinders practical passive radiative cool-ing applications. Cai and co-workers proposed composite nanoarchitectonics to integrate passive radiative cooling materials with self-cleaning and antimicrobial functions [246]. Hierarchically patterned nanoporous composite materials were developed using a simple template mold-ing method (Fig.  17). Radiative cooling and superhydro-phobic properties can be achieved by creating hierarchical Fig. 15  Composite with a stretchable biodegradable array of pil-lars composed of a biodegradable elastomer, poly(l-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone), and biocompatible/biodegradable nanoparticles, polytetrafluoroethylene and silicon dioxide in which the micro-pattern reduces the diffusion area of water molecules, and the embedded nanoparticles block water permeation, which synergistically enhances the water barrier performance. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [244]. Copyright 2023 American Chemical Society 1 32940Journal of Inorganic and Organometallic Polymers and Materials (2024) 34:2926–2947exhibits optimal electromagnetic wave absorption proper-ties. The three-dimensional dispersion nanoarchitecton-ics of graphene improves the impedance matching of the material. The advantages of large specific surface area, high defect density, and excellent electrical conductivity increase dielectric and magnetic losses.Wood-based solar steam generators are gaining promi-nence in the field of desalination and water purification. The material is considered to be particularly cost-effective and good electrical conductivity, which improves the imped-ance matching of the material and increases magnetic loss. the SiC/multilayer graphene composite powder could be an excellent electromagnetic wave absorber. In-situ synthesis of graphene is an effective way to improve the electromag-netic wave absorption properties of SiC nanopowders. With an appropriate excess amount of expanded graphite, multi-layer graphene of appropriate thickness is formed in-situ in the composite powder. The structure-optimized composite Fig. 17  Composite nanoarchitectonics to integrate passive radiative cooling materials with self-cleaning and antimicrobial functions with radiative cooling and superhydrophobic properties. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [246]. Copyright 2023 American Chemical Society Fig. 16  Composite elastomers based on polydimethylsiloxane with ultrafast light-controlled healing capability and toughness with dynamic bond breakdown and reconstruction and the strengthening effect of the carbon nanotubes contained in the composite elastomer. Repro-duced with permission from Ref. [245]. Copyright 2023 American Chemical Society 1 32941Journal of Inorganic and Organometallic Polymers and Materials (2024) 34:2926–2947retardant properties. Well-dispersed anionic and cationic clay nanosheets in the polymer matrix significantly enhance thermal stability, mechanical properties, and flame retar-dancy. It is expected that a similar methodology can be applied to various polymer composite materials, where a rational composite of anionic and cationic clays can be used to develop environmentally friendly flame retardants with improved thermal and mechanical properties.Habi and co-workers have developed composite materi-als for package applications under the design guideline of composite nanoarchitectonics of poly(lactic acid)/metal-organic framework. Specifically, they used poly(lactic acid) (PLA), metal-organic framework (MOF-5), and metal-organic framework/graphene oxide (MOF-5/GO) [250]. The nanocomposites were prepared by melt extrusion using a vertical co-rotating biaxial microcompounder. In particu-lar, the water vapor permeability was strongly reduced by the incorporation of MOF-5/GO. The presence of MOF-5/GO filler was found to have a significant impact on the water vapor barrier properties. This property will be a useful insight for the development of materials with tailored bar-rier properties in packaging, especially in food packaging.7  Summary and PerspectivesNanoarchitectonics is a post-nanotechnology concept that involves building functional materials that reflect the nano-structures. Functional material systems are assembled from units such as atoms and molecules. Since materials are in principle made of atoms and molecules, the methodology of nanoarchitectonics may be applicable to the creation of all materials science. In particular, the approach of combin-ing and building multiple types of components to create renewable. Li, Xu, and co-workers have developed a unique bilayer composite that incorporates polyaniline nanorods homogeneously into a 3D mesoporous matrix of natural wood (Fig. 18) [248]. The synthesis is a simple, efficient, and environmentally friendly one-step approach. Wood decorated with polyaniline exhibited ultra-high absorbance over a wide wavelength range due to the conjugation of wood with coral-like polyaniline nanorods. In particular, the large number of aligned wood microchannels allowed constant and rapid water transport at the air-water interface under the pressure of capillary forces. This effect generates water vapor at a high evaporation rate. The result is a robust, low-cost, promising evaporator that can be used for water purification. Polyaniline wood exhibits long-term floatabil-ity and is chemically stable. Therefore, it could be an ideal candidate for low-energy solar-driven water evaporation applications.Widely used flame retardants have been brominated flame retardants, which are problematic because of their harmful properties. In response to such problems, there is a need to develop environmentally friendly flame retardants. Choy and co-workers have developed a flame retardant compos-ite using a tactic called composite nanoarchitectonics with ionic clay nanofillers-embedded polypropylene [249]. Spe-cifically, polypropylene is used to composite ionic nano-fillers, layered double hydroxide (LDH) and cationic clay (mica). The ionic nanofillers are modified with stearate and cetyltrimethylammonium to make them compatible with polypropylene. In other words, to improve the molecular bonding interaction of ionic nanofillers, anionic stearate and cationic cetyltrimethylammonium surfactants were inserted between the clay layers and the corresponding nanofillers were synthesized by coprecipitation and ion exchange reac-tions. The composite material exhibited excellent flame Fig. 18  A unique bilayer composite with incorporates polyaniline nanorods homogeneously into a 3D mesoporous matrix of natu-ral wood in which the large number of aligned wood microchannels allowed constant and rapid water transport at the air-water interface under the pressure of capillary forces. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [248]. Copyright 2023 Oxford University Press 1 32942Journal of Inorganic and Organometallic Polymers and Materials (2024) 34:2926–2947to transform single-function research examples into prac-tical products that can meet a variety of requirements. To expand such industrial potential, technology for mass pro-duction should be developed. This may also require process optimization using artificial intelligence. It would also be very interesting to develop artificial synthesis machines for complex processes through the use of robot technology.If we can solve the above problems, we may be able to develop a device that automatically prefects very complex material systems. Nanoarchitectonics is a method for every-thing in materials science. A nanoarchitectonics machine may become the ultimate device to create all materials from atoms and molecules. Humans may create devices that pro-duce functional material systems that function as versatile as living organisms.Acknowledgements  This study was partially supported by Japan Society for the Promotion of Science KAKENHI (Grant Numbers, JP20H00392 and JP23H05459).Author Contributions  This is a single author manuscript. All the tasks were done by this author.Funding  Open Access funding provided by The University of Tokyo.Data Availability  No datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.DeclarationsCompeting Interests  The authors declare no competing interests.Open Access   This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.References1.  I.R. Vetter, A. Wittinghofer, Science 294, 1299 (2001)2.  K.N. Ferreira, T.M. Iverson, K. Maghlaoui, J. Barber, S. Iwata, Science. 303, 1831 (2004)3.  D.A. Bryant, D.P. Canniffe, J. Phys. B: Mol. Opt. Phys. 51, 033001 (2018)4.  G. Povie, Y. Segawa, T. Nishihara, Y. Miyauchi, K. Itami, Sci-ence. 356, 172 (2017)5.  M. Sugiyama, M. Akiyama, Y. Yonezawa, K. Komaguchi, M. Higashi, K. Nozaki, T. Okazoe, Science. 377, 756 (2022)6.  K. Murakami, Bull. Chem. Soc. Jpn. 96, 591 (2023)composite materials is an area where nanoarchitectonics can be a powerful tool. 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