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Nur Arina Mat Rusni, Azuraida Amat, Wan Yusmawati Wan Yusoff, Nor Azlian Abdul-Manaff, Nurazlin Ahmad, Hasnimulyati Laoding, [Hiroyo Segawa](https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7198-8410)

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[Simulation-Based Radiation Shielding and Optical Properties of Thulium-Doped Bismuth Tellurite Glass](https://mdr.nims.go.jp/datasets/749f1a7b-81cd-4f5f-86c4-d7684822204a)

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Journal of Advanced Research in Fluid Mechanics and Thermal Sciences 125, Issue 1 (2025) 112-126  112   Journal of Advanced Research in Fluid      Mechanics and Thermal Sciences  Journal homepage: https://semarakilmu.com.my/journals/index.php/fluid_mechanics_thermal_sciences/index ISSN: 2289-7879  Simulation-Based Radiation Shielding and Optical Properties of Thulium-Doped Bismuth Tellurite Glass  Nur Arina Mat Rusni1,2, Azuraida Amat2,*, Wan Yusmawati Wan Yusoff2, Nor Azlian Abdul-Manaff2, Nurazlin Ahmad2, Hasnimulyati Laoding3, Hiroyo Segawa4   1 Faculty of Defence Science and Technology, National Defense University of Malaysia, Kem Sungai Besi, 57000 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 2 Physics Department, Centre for Defence Foundation Studies, National Defense University of Malaysia, Kem Sungai Besi, 57000 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 3 Physics Department, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA Cawangan Pahang, Kampus Jengka, 26400 Jengka, Pahang, Malaysia 4 National Institute for Materials Science, 1-1 Namiki, Tsukuba 305-0044, Ibaraki, Japan   ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT Article history: Received 18 August 2024 Received in revised form 12 November 2024 Accepted 24 November 2024 Available online 10 December 2024    Lead-based radiation shielding material is currently used in industry to shield against high-penetration radiation such as gamma rays. However, lead is harmful to humans, animals, and plants. This study proposed a new composition of transparent lead-free glass. Using the melt and quench technique, thulium-doped bismuth tellurite glass with composition (TeO2)1-x (Bi2O3)x (Tm2O3)0.02 where x = 0.05, 0.10, 0.15, and 0.20 mol % was fabricated. Significantly, the glasses with Bi2O3 concentration of 5 mol % and 10 mol% have a higher density than the commercial glass containing lead indicating the fabricated glasses would perform better as a radiation shielding material. Comparing the simulated-radiation shielding properties using software Phy-X and XCom, the glass with 10 mol% of Bi2O3 performs better as radiation shielding material than 5 mol% of Bi2O3. Meanwhile, glass with 5 mol% of Bi2O3 performs better than 10 mol% of Bi2O3 in terms of optical properties. Considering both radiation shielding and optical properties, the fabricated lead-free glass can be widely used in radiation shielding applications that require transparency. Keywords: Thulium doped bismuth tellurite; structural properties; radiation shielding properties; optical properties; lead-free glass  1. Introduction  Currently, transparent radiation shielding glass is used in the medical industry as viewing windows to protect healthcare personnel during radiation treatment. However, like a double-edged sword, current radiation shielding glass used in industry contains lead which poses hazardous effects on humans, animals, and plants [1-5]. With the toxicity of lead, alternative development of lead-free radiation shielding glass became crucial. Despite numerous research efforts to develop lead-free glass, it is not easy to compose a glass composition that has high density and clear transparency that  * Corresponding author. E-mail address: azuraida@upnm.edu.my  https://doi.org/10.37934/arfmts.125.1.112126 https://semarakilmu.com.my/journals/index.php/fluid_mechanics_thermal_sciences/indexJournal of Advanced Research in Fluid Mechanics and Thermal Sciences Volume 125, Issue 1 (2025) 112-126 113  is at par with lead glass [6-9]. Therefore, a new composition of lead-free radiation shielding glass was proposed. The chemical compounds of tellurium dioxide (TeO2), bismuth trioxide (Bi2O3), and thulium (III) oxide (Tm2O3) were incorporated into the glass composition. Tellurite-based glass is chosen as the glass base mainly due to its high density. TeO2 has a higher density of 5.67 g/cm3 compared to commercially used silicon dioxide (SiO2) with a density of 2.65 g/cm3. This high density indicates that there is a high potential to be applied as a radiation shielding material since there will be a higher probability of interaction between atoms and harmful radiation such as gamma rays. The interaction of atoms could be either photoelectric effects, pair-productions, or Compton scatterings [10]. Previous studies have shown that glasses with a high density resulted in a high mass attenuation coefficient [11,12]. The mass attenuation coefficient expresses how many photons a homogeneous absorber removes per unit mass from a radiation beam such as x-rays or gamma rays. Apart from that, TeO2 glasses have a low melting temperature making them a good eco-friendly alternative due to their low energy consumption during the melting process [13]. Also, TeO2 glasses are transparent in the near UV to mid-IR wavelength range making it suitable to be applied in application that requires the line-of-sight [14]. Then, Bi2O3 was incorporated into the glass composition due to its high density and non-toxic to the environment. In wastewater treatment, bismuth nanoparticles have been used to degrade dye, and a toxicology study proved that the treated dye water is non-toxic [15]. In terms of radiation shielding, when bismuth was layered together with a leaded gonad shield, bismuth significantly reduced radiation dose without disrupting the image quality of pelvic X-ray [16]. Hence, this shows the potential of bismuth as a radiation-shielding material. Furthermore, Tm2O3 incorporation was found to improve glass structure by improving the connectivity of the glass network and atomic arrangement cross-linkage [17,18]. It was proven that Tm2O3 incorporation in the TeO2 glass system significantly increases the mass attenuation coefficient and linear attenuation coefficient [19,20]. Taking into account the aforementioned considerations, a series of new compositions of tellurite-based glass was fabricated and the optical as well as radiation shielding properties were investigated. The radiation shielding investigation for the mass attenuation coefficient was conducted at a continuous energy range of 0.001 keV to 1000 MeV. Then, further analysis of radiation shielding at energy 0.662 MeV using Cs-137 was conducted. This energy was specifically chosen since the gamma rays with wavelength 0.001874 nm are usually applied in medical procedures such as radiotherapy [21]. Also, a comparison between fabricated glasses with industrial lead glass was made. This study can significantly contribute to the development of lead-free glass that is not only eco-friendly but also can be widely used in transparent radiation shielding applications in the medical industry.  2. Methodology 2.1 Glass Samples Fabrication  New composition of (TeO2)1-x (Bi2O3)x (Tm2O3)0.02 where x = 0.05, 0.10, 0.15, 0.20 mol % was fabricated using melt and quench technique. This fabrication technique was chosen due to its simplicity. After stoichiometry calculation, the chemicals of TeO2, Bi2O3 and Tm2O3 supplied from Alfa Aesar with 99.99% purity were weighted using a PGW 214 analytical balance from AE Adam. The weighted chemical was then transferred to a natural agate mortar and pestle. To ensure the chemicals were mixed homogenously, the chemicals were grounded for an hour. After grounding, the chemicals were then transferred to an alumina crucible for the preheating process in an electric furnace. After an hour of preheating at 400 °C to eliminate water vapour, the melting process was carried out in a different furnace for an hour at 900 °C. While the melting process occurred, a Journal of Advanced Research in Fluid Mechanics and Thermal Sciences Volume 125, Issue 1 (2025) 112-126 114  stainless-steel mould was heated at 400 °C to avoid thermal shock on the high-temperature molten sample. This thermal shock could cause the glass sample to have a higher susceptibility to crack during the annealing process. Following the melting process, the molten sample was poured onto a heated stainless-steel mould and placed in an electric furnace to undergo an additional 1 hour of annealing at 400 °C. The sample was then allowed to cool to ambient temperature.  2.2 Density and Molar Volume Measurement  The density measurement was conducted using an MGS-300 density meter from Alfa Mirage. Archimedes’s principle was applied, and Eq. (1) was used for the calculation of the glass density.  𝜌𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 = (𝑤𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑤𝑎𝑖𝑟− 𝑤 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟) (𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟)           (1)  where the symbol 𝜌𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠, 𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟, 𝑤𝑎𝑖𝑟 and 𝑤𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 referred to glass density, water density, glass weight in air and glass weight in distilled water, respectively. The molar volume (𝑉𝑚) of fabricated glass was calculated using the Eq. (2).  𝑉𝑚 = (𝑀𝑚𝜌𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠)              (2)  The symbol 𝑀𝑚 in Eq. (2) stands for the relative molar mass of glass samples. Using the value of 𝑉𝑚, oxygen packing density (𝑂𝑃𝐷) was calculated using Eq. (3) [22].  𝑂𝑃𝐷 =1000 ×𝑐𝑉𝑚             (3)  where 𝑐 represent the number of oxygens per unit formula.  2.3 Structural Properties Characterization  Structural characterization was conducted by Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR). The FTIR measurement was conducted from 600 cm-1 to 4000 cm-1 wavenumbers using a Perkin Elmer FT-IR Spectrometer Frontier. FTIR measurement enables the analysis of the network in the glass structure. The examined glasses were in the form of solid glass samples.  2.4 Theoretical Radiation Shielding Properties Measurements  Web-based radiation shielding software Phy-X and XCom were used to measure the radiation shielding parameters such as mass attenuation coefficient (𝑀𝐴𝐶), half-value layer (𝐻𝑉𝐿), and mean free path (𝑀𝐹𝑃) of glass samples. For software Phy-X, the radiation shielding parameters were obtained directly from the software. However, for software XCom, radiation shielding parameters such as 𝐻𝑉𝐿 and 𝑀𝐹𝑃 were obtained through manual calculation since only 𝑀𝐴𝐶 value can be obtained directly from the software. Using the value of linear attenuation coefficient (𝐿𝐴𝐶) as shown in Eq. (4), the value of 𝐻𝑉𝐿 and 𝑀𝐹𝑃 were calculated using Eq. (5) and Eq. (6), respectively.  𝐿𝐴𝐶 =  𝑀𝐴𝐶 ∙  𝜌𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠            (4)  Journal of Advanced Research in Fluid Mechanics and Thermal Sciences Volume 125, Issue 1 (2025) 112-126 115  𝐻𝑉𝐿 =𝐼𝑛 (2)𝐿𝐴𝐶=0.693𝐿𝐴𝐶             (5)  𝑀𝐹𝑃 =1𝐿𝐴𝐶              (6)  The value of the effect atomic number (𝑍𝑒𝑓𝑓) in Eq. (9) was calculated using the value of the atomic cross section (𝐴𝐶𝑆) calculated by Eq. (7) and the effective atomic number (ECS) derived from Eq. (8).  𝐴𝐶𝑆 =𝑀𝐴𝐶𝑁𝐴 ∑𝑤𝐴              (7)  𝐸𝐶𝑆 =1𝑁𝐴(∑𝑓∙𝐴𝑍 ∙ (𝑀𝐴𝐶))            (8)  𝑍𝑒𝑓𝑓 =𝐴𝐶𝑆𝐸𝐶𝑆              (9)  where 𝑤, 𝑓, 𝑍, 𝐴 are the weight fraction of the element, the fraction of abundance of the element, the atomic number of the element, and the atomic weight of a constituent element, respectively. Then, the percentage of relative difference (𝑅𝐷) of the results obtained from software Phy-X and XCom was calculated using Eq. (10).  𝑅𝐷 =  𝑀𝐴𝐶𝑋𝐶𝑜𝑚− 𝑀𝐴𝐶𝑃ℎ𝑦−𝑥𝑀𝐴𝐶𝑋𝐶𝑜𝑚+ 𝑀𝐴𝐶𝑃ℎ𝑦−𝑥 × 100                    (10)  Here, 𝑀𝐴𝐶𝑋𝐶𝑜𝑚 stands for the 𝑀𝐴𝐶 result obtained from software XCom and 𝑀𝐴𝐶𝑃ℎ𝑦−𝑥 refers to the 𝑀𝐴𝐶 results obtained from software Phy-X.  2.5 Optical Properties Measurements  Optical absorbance spectrum of glass samples was measured in the wavelength range of 200 to 1100 nm using ultraviolet-visible (UV-VIS) spectrophotometer UV-3600i Plus from Shimadzu. The absorbance (𝐴) values were used to calculate the absorption coefficient (𝛼) using the following Eq. (10).  𝛼 = 2.303 𝐴𝑡                        (11)  where 𝑡 indicates the thickness of glass samples. Tauc’s plot, a graph of (𝛼ℎv)1/2 vs (ℎv) was then used to determine the value of 𝐸𝑜𝑝𝑡 where the 𝐸𝑜𝑝𝑡 value can be determined by the x-intercept of the Tauc’s plot. Then, to determine the value of molar polarizability (𝛼𝑚) as shown in Eq. (13) refractive index (𝑛) and molar refraction (𝑅𝑚) value was calculated using Eq. (11), and Eq. (12), respectively.  𝑛 =  √−2 +  3√𝐸𝑜𝑝𝑡20                       (12)  Journal of Advanced Research in Fluid Mechanics and Thermal Sciences Volume 125, Issue 1 (2025) 112-126 116  𝑅𝑚 =  𝑉𝑚 (𝑛2−1𝑛2+2)                       (13)  𝛼𝑚 =  34 (𝑅𝑚𝜋 𝑁𝐴)                       (14)  where 𝜋 stands for the value of pi, and 𝑁𝐴 refers to Avogadro’s constant.  3. Results and Discussions 3.1 Glass Composition, Density, and Molar Volume  Figure 1 shows the fabricated glass samples and ceramic samples. The fabrication of the glass samples was stopped at 0.10Bi glass since further incorporation of Bi2O3 caused the samples to turn opaque. The opaque nature of 0.15Bi and 0.20Bi ceramics was due to their compact structure which resulted from the excessive incorporation of high-density Bi2O3. This caused UV and infrared light unable to transmit through the material causing the material to appear opaque. As for 0.05Bi and 0.10Bi glass, visible light waves were able to transmit through the glass leading to transparent glass. Then, the observed yellowish color of the glass samples is due to the incorporation of Tm2O3. The formation of defects in the glass network caused the formation of color centers. These color centers caused glass to absorb and emit specific wavelengths of light [23]. Thulium has an emission wavelength at peaks 458nm, 470 nm, and 650nm where energy transition 1D2 to 3F4, 1G4 to 3H6, and 1G4 to 3F4, respectively occur [24]. This thulium emission wavelength correlates with yellow color emission wavelength which is in the range of 500nm to 650nm [25]. This proved the influence of thulium which caused the visible yellow color of the glass.   Fig. 1. Fabricated thulium doped bismuth tellurite glass and ceramics  Table 1 summarizes the fabricated samples’ chemical composition, molar mass, density, molar volume, oxygen packing density (𝑂𝑃𝐷) and color of fabricated samples. The molar mass of the samples increases as the mol % of Bi2O3 incorporated increases. This is due to heavy metal bismuth (Bi) atoms that replace other lighter atoms. Also, the density of the samples increases as the mol % of Bi2O3 incorporated increases indicating that a stronger glass network connectivity was formed [26]. Theoretically, the relationship between density and molar volume should be inversely proportional as shown in Eq. (2). However, the molar volume of the fabricated glass increases as the density increases. This indicates the number of non-bridging oxygens (NBOs) reduces in the glass network. The reduction of NBOs was confirmed further by the calculation of 𝑂𝑃𝐷. It was found that the 𝑂𝑃𝐷 increases as the mol % of Bi2O3 increases indicating Bi2O3 acts as a network former. However, when Bi2O3 was added excessively in 0.15Bi and 0.20Bi, the samples turned opaque as shown in Figure 1. When there is too much network in the glass structure, it could block visible light. Thus, only 0.05Bi and 0.10Bi will be characterized further for transparent radiation shielding glass for medical and industrial applications.   Journal of Advanced Research in Fluid Mechanics and Thermal Sciences Volume 125, Issue 1 (2025) 112-126 117  Table 1 Sample code, chemical composition, molar mass, density, molar volume, oxygen packing density and color of thulium doped tellurite glass Sample Code Chemical Composition  (mol %) Molar Mass (g/mol) Density (g/cm3) Molar Volume (cm3/g) Oxygen Packing Density (g/cm3) Color TeO2 Bi2O3 Tm2O3 0.05Bi 93 5 2 179.44 5.45 32.998 62.731 Transparent Light-yellow 0.10Bi 88 10 2 194.76 5.91 32.938 64.364 Transparent Light- yellow 0.15Bi 83 15 2 210.08 6.41 32.789 66.181 Opaque yellow 0.20Bi 78 20 2 225.40 6.55 34.422 64.493 Opaque yellow  A comparison between the density of fabricated glass samples with lead-based radiation shielding material is shown in Table 2. It is clearly shown that the fabricated glass samples have much higher density than lead glass. This proves the applicability of the glass to be used in industry.  Table 2 Glass code, chemical composition, density, and molar volume of thulium doped tellurite glass Glass Density (g/cm3) 0.05Bi (This work) 5.45 0.10Bi (This Work) 5.91 (Li2O3)10 (PbO)30 (Bi2O3)10 (B2O3)50 [27] 4.93 (Li2O3)10 (PbO)30 (B2O3)60 [27] 4.38 (Na2O)10 (Quartz)60 (PbO)30 [28] 4.70 RS 323 G19 Schott Glass (33% lead) [29] 3.26 RS 360 Schott Glass (45% lead) [29] 3.60 RS 520 Schott Glass (71% lead) [29] 5.18  3.2 Structural Properties  FTIR analysis was conducted to evaluate the structural bonds that are present in the fabricated thulium-doped bismuth tellurite glass. Figure 2 shows the FTIR spectrum and Table 3 describes the assignment of transmission peaks observed at specific wavenumber. The appearance of the transmittance peak at 622 cm-1 wavenumber indicates the stretching vibration of stretching vibrations of TeO4 structural units [30]. Meanwhile, the presence of Te-O bonds of TeO3 structural units is indicated by the transmittance peak at 704 cm-1 [31,32]. This shows that tellurite is made of TeOn where n = 4, 3+1, and 3 [33]. The variation of structural units is due to local inhomogeneity whereby electrons do not transfer the glass modifier atoms to all the structural units [34]. In this case, the modifier atoms are Bi. Hence, in the fabricated glass consists of three states of tellurite structural units. However, the structural bonds of Bi-O cannot be observed due to instrument limitations where high noise was observed at a wavenumber lower than 600 cm-1 [35]. The Bi-O bonds should be observed at wavenumber 50 cm-1 to 500 cm-1. Furthermore, the presence of a sharp peak at 1214 cm-1 indicates the bending of water molecules H2O or/and the overtone of O–Te–O symmetric stretch [36]. Then, the sharp peaks at 1368 cm-1 and 1740 cm-1 were attributed to the stretching mode of weak Te–OH and strong Te–OH structural bonds. Notice that the intensity of the peaks at wavenumbers 1214 cm-1, 1368 cm-1 and 1740 cm-1 appear shaper in 0.05Bi glass than 0.10Bi glass. This indicates the incorporation of a glass modifier which in this case Bi2O3 reduces the weak hydrogen bonds of Te-OH [36]. Then, the presence of small peaks at 2076 cm-1 and 2286 cm-1 was due to O-H bond bending while a small peak at 3000 cm-1 was due to O-H bond stretching. These O-Journal of Advanced Research in Fluid Mechanics and Thermal Sciences Volume 125, Issue 1 (2025) 112-126 118  H bond bending and stretching were assigned to water molecules type 1 H2O(I) which were probably trapped in the glass network with restricted motion [37,38]. Based on the FTIR result, the peak for a Tm-O bond was not observed. The peak could not be detected since the concentration of Tm2O3 incorporated in the glass composition was very low. A similar result was also observed by Hasnimulyati et al., [39]. However, the presence of thulium can be verified by colour centre as discussed in section 3.1.   Fig. 2. FTIR spectrum of thulium doped bismuth tellurite glass  Table 3 FTIR structural properties investigation of thulium doped tellurite glass Wavenumber (cm-1) Assignment Ref. 622 Stretching vibrations of TeO4 structural units  Gupta et al., [30] 704 Stretching vibrations of TeO3/ TeO3+1 structural units  Kaur et al., [31] He et al., [32] 1214 Overtone of O–Te–O symmetric stretch and/or bending mode of molecular water Cheng et al., [36] 1368 Weak Te–OH bonds stretching Cheng et al., [36] 1740 Strong Te–OH bonds stretching Cheng et al., [36] 2076 O-H bonds bending vibration of water molecules in glasses  Brokmann et al., [37] 2286 3000 O-H stretching of water molecule in glasses  Brokmann et al., [37]  3.3 Radiation Shielding Properties  The interaction of photons and radiation shielding material can be observed based on the result of the mass attenuation coefficient (𝑀𝐴𝐶). Based on Figure 3 𝑀𝐴𝐶 showed dependency on photon energy where photon interactions such as the photoelectric effect, Compton scattering and pair-production occurred within the attenuated glass. As shown in Figure 3(a) and Figure 3(b), at low Journal of Advanced Research in Fluid Mechanics and Thermal Sciences Volume 125, Issue 1 (2025) 112-126 119  energy levels (0.001 MeV to 0.004 MeV), rapidly decreased of 𝑀𝐴𝐶 was due to the interaction of the photoelectric effect became dominant [40]. Then, at the intermediate energy level where 0.004 MeV to 0.013 MeV for software XCom in Figure 2(a) and 0.004 MeV to 0.015 MeV for software Phy-X in Figure 2(b), the slower decrease of 𝑀𝐴𝐶 was due to the interaction of Compton scattering [41]. At high energy which is above 0.013 MeV for software XCom and 0.015 MeV for software Phy-X, the 𝑀𝐴𝐶 is an almost constant curve indicating the pair production interaction of photons [42]. Based on the result of 𝑀𝐴𝐶 obtained from software XCom, a few sudden sharp peaks are observed in Figure 3(a). These sharp peaks are due to the absorption edge phenomena. The absorption edge phenomena occur when the absorbed photon energy corresponds to the electronic transition or ionization potential of atoms. The absorption edge peak indication was obtained directly from the software XCom. The Te atoms caused a sudden peak at 1.006 × 10−3  MeV due to the M-absorption edge. Meanwhile, the sharp peaks at 1.515 × 10−3 MeV, 1.850 × 10−3 MeV, and 1.445 × 10−3 MeV were caused by the M-absorption edge of Tm atoms. Then, a peak at 2.668 × 10−3 MeV was attributed to the M-absorption edge of Bi atoms. Three distinguished peaks at 4.341 × 10−3 MeV, 4.612 × 10−3 MeV, and 5.000 × 10−3 MeV were due to the L-absorption edge of Te atoms. However, as for 𝑀𝐴𝐶 results obtained from software Phy-X in Figure 3(b), the only distinguishable sharp peak only observed at 5.000 × 10−3 MeV. This sharp peak was due to the L-absorption edge of Te atoms.    (a) (b)   (c) (d) Fig. 3. Mass attenuation coefficient of thulium doped bismuth tellurite glass at different photon energies obtained from software (a) XCom for 0.05Bi glass, (b) XCom for 0.10Bi glass, (c) Phy-X for 0.05Bi glass, and Phy-X for 0.10Bi glass  The percentage of relative difference (RD) of 𝑀𝐴𝐶 for software Phy-X and XCom is 1.93% for 0.05Bi glass and 3.08% for 0.10Bi glass as shown in Table 4. This low RD indicates that good detection system of the software [43]. The percentage difference was due to systematic error where a different Journal of Advanced Research in Fluid Mechanics and Thermal Sciences Volume 125, Issue 1 (2025) 112-126 120  method was applied for stoichiometric calculation. For software Phy-X, the density of the glasses used for simulation was obtained through an experimental method while software XCom calculated the density of the glass samples based on the molar mass and molar volume of the atoms in the compound mixture.  Table 4 Glass code, mass attenuation coefficient and percentage relative difference of thulium doped bismuth tellurite glass Glass Code Mass attenuation coefficient at 0.662 MeV (cm2/g) Percentage of relative difference, RD (%) Phy-X XCom 0.05Bi 0.0801 0.0771 1.93 0.10Bi 0.0838 0.0788 3.08  The half-value layer (𝐻𝑉𝐿) of 0.05Bi and 0.10Bi glass was analyzed at photon energy 0.662 MeV. Photon energy released at 0.662 MeV by 137Cs produced high-energy gamma radiation. This high-energy gamma radiation is currently used in the medical industry especially for cancer treatment as deep tissue penetration can be achieved [44]. Based on the results 𝐻𝑉𝐿 obtained from software Phy-X and XCom in Figure 4, it was found that the glass with 0.10Bi had lower 𝐻𝑉𝐿 than 0.05Bi. Low 𝐻𝑉𝐿 indicates that the material can shield radiation better since the low distance it takes for the harmful radiation rays to reduce to half of its original value. Figure 5 shows the result of the mean free path (𝑀𝐹𝑃) at a photon energy of 0.662 MeV for software Phy-X and XCom. The 𝑀𝐹𝑃 indicates the average distance a unit of radiation can travel in the material before being absorbed. The result depicted that the 0.10Bi glass has a lower 𝑀𝐹𝑃 than 0.05Bi. This low value of 𝑀𝐹𝑃 in 0.10Bi glass indicates that 0.10Bi glass is more efficient at absorbing radiation rays than 0.05Bi glass [45]. A higher concentration of than Bi2O3 in 0.10Bi that 0.05Bi resulted in more photon interaction with radiation shielding glass.     Fig. 4. Half-value layer of thulium doped bismuth tellurite glass at photon energy 0.662 MeV for software Phy-X and XCom  Fig. 5. Mean free path of thulium doped bismuth tellurite glass at photon energy 0.662 MeV for software Phy-X and XCom  Figure 6 shows the result of the effective atomic number (𝑍𝑒𝑓𝑓) of thulium-doped bismuth tellurite glass. The 𝑍𝑒𝑓𝑓 investigation was conducted at continuous energy between 0.001 MeV to 10 000 MeV, and specifically at 0.662 MeV as shown in Figure 6(a), and Figure 6(b), respectively. Significantly, the 𝑍𝑒𝑓𝑓 results calculated from software XCom are energy independent while the results simulated from software Phy-X are energy dependent as shown in Figure 6(a). The energy-independent 𝑍𝑒𝑓𝑓 from software XCom is close to the calculated value of the composition’s mean Journal of Advanced Research in Fluid Mechanics and Thermal Sciences Volume 125, Issue 1 (2025) 112-126 121  atomic number. Similar energy-independent 𝑍𝑒𝑓𝑓 was also observed in a study done by Huse et al., [46]. Hence, this shows the limitation of XCom software. Conversely, the energy-dependent 𝑍𝑒𝑓𝑓 obtained from software Phy-X makes it possible to evaluate the photon interaction with shielding material. Similar to 𝑀𝐴𝐶, a sharp increase of 𝑍𝑒𝑓𝑓 at low energy levels was due to the dominant interaction of the photoelectric effect [47]. Meanwhile, a progressive decrease of 𝑍𝑒𝑓𝑓 at intermediate energy levels indicates Compton scattering becomes dominant [48]. Then, at high energy levels, pair-production interaction dominancy can be portrayed by constant 𝑍𝑒𝑓𝑓 curves [49]. It is also observed that there are a few sudden sharp peaks in 𝑍𝑒𝑓𝑓 curves due to the absorption edge. A detailed explanation regarding absorption edge was discussed in the 𝑀𝐴𝐶 section. Then, the effect of Bi2O3 on 𝑍𝑒𝑓𝑓 at 0.662 MeV photon energy is shown in Figure 6(b). A high value of 𝑍𝑒𝑓𝑓 is favourable since it indicates that a high number of photons attenuated because shielding material has become the preferred target for photons. Thus, photons would collide more frequently with the atoms of shielding material [11]. The 0.10Bi glass results in a higher value of 𝑍𝑒𝑓𝑓 at 0.662 MeV photon energy. This is due to the incorporation of bismuth which has a high atomic number causing a high 𝑍𝑒𝑓𝑓 value. Bismuth which is a heavy element causes more collision of radiation rays to occur within the glass material [50].    (a) (b) Fig. 6. Effective atomic number of thulium doped bismuth tellurite glass at (a) continuous energy range from 0.001 MeV to 10 000 MeV, and (b) photon energy 0.662 MeV for software Phy-X and XCom  3.4 Optical Properties  Figure 7 shows the UV-VIS absorption spectra of 0.05Bi and 0.10Bi glass where the investigated wavelength range is 200 nm to 1100 nm. A dominant central wavelength (𝜆𝑐) was observed at 321.5 nm for both 0.05Bi and 0.10Bi glass. This central wavelength lies in the visible light spectrum. Based on Figure 7, the absorbed light is higher in 0.10Bi glass than 0.05Bi glass indicating the degree of transparency in 0.10Bi glass is lower than 0.05Bi glass [51]. Then, extrapolation of the graph (𝛼ℎv)1/2 vs (ℎv) provides the result of optical band gap (𝐸𝑜𝑝𝑡) for 0.05Bi and 0.10Bi glass as shown in Figure 8. The 𝐸𝑜𝑝𝑡 of 0.10Bi glass is higher than 0.05Bi glass due to lower number of NBOs in the glass structure which was proven by 𝑂𝑃𝐷. The lower NBO number was caused by the incorporation of Bi2O3 in the glass composition resulting in Te–O–Te or O–Te–O bond bending vibrations drastically decreasing in the FTIR spectrum. This results in a more compact structure that was discussed previously in the density section. Both fabricated glasses also exhibit high transparency which is evidenced by the drop Journal of Advanced Research in Fluid Mechanics and Thermal Sciences Volume 125, Issue 1 (2025) 112-126 122  of (𝛼ℎv)1/2 vs (ℎv) curves at energies less than 𝐸𝑜𝑝𝑡 [52]. Comparing 0.05Bi and 0.10Bi, the curve of (𝛼ℎv)1/2 vs (ℎv) for 0.05Bi drops more drastically than 0.10Bi at energies less than 𝐸𝑜𝑝𝑡. A drastic drop of (𝛼ℎv)1/2 vs (ℎv) indicates a material has high transparency [53].     Fig. 7. Absorbance spectra of thulium doped bismuth tellurite glass  Fig. 8. Tauc’s plot graph of (𝛼ℎv)1/2 vs (ℎv) for thulium doped bismuth tellurite glass  Figure 9 shows the molar polarizability of 0.05Bi and 0.10Bi glass. The 0.05Bi glass poses slightly higher molar polarizability compared to 0.10Bi. A high number of NBOs caused molar polarizability to also become high [54]. Compared to bridging oxygens (BOs), nonbridging oxygens (NBOs) have a higher tendency to polarize [55]. In applications that require line-of-sight, polarized glass is desired. Polarized glass could eliminate glare which could partially block humans’ vision [56]. When polarized sunglasses were applied in road sports, it was found that polarized sunglasses were able to block glare from direct sunlight and sunlight reflected by the road [57].   Fig. 9. Bar graph of molar polarizability thulium doped bismuth tellurite glass  4. Conclusions  In this study, a new composition of TeO2)1-x (Bi2O3)x (Tm2O3)0.02 was successfully fabricated. Structural investigation by FTIR shows the Te–O–Te or O–Te–O bond bending vibrations and Bi-O bonds. Then, a radiation shielding investigation was conducted using the software Phy-X and XCom. Based on the 𝑀𝐴𝐶 results, the interaction of the photoelectric effect, Compton scattering, and pair-Journal of Advanced Research in Fluid Mechanics and Thermal Sciences Volume 125, Issue 1 (2025) 112-126 123  production occur at the same energy range for both glasses due to similar compounds incorporated in the glass composition. The 0.10Bi glass exhibits better radiation shielding capability than 0.05Bi glass. This can be seen based on the result of 𝐻𝑉𝐿, 𝑀𝐹𝑃, and 𝑍𝑒𝑓𝑓. The 0.10Bi glass has lower 𝐻𝑉𝐿 and 𝑀𝐹𝑃 as well as higher 𝑍𝑒𝑓𝑓 than 0.05Bi glass. However, in terms of optical properties, the 0.05Bi glass performs better than the 0.10Bi glass. This can be depicted based on the result of absorption spectra, 𝐸𝑜𝑝𝑡 and molar polarizability. The 𝐸𝑜𝑝𝑡 of the 0.05Bi glass is lower than the 0.10Bi glass due to the high number of NBOs in the glass structure which was proven by the low value of 𝑂𝑃𝐷. Also, the 0.05Bi glass poses slightly higher molar polarizability compared to 0.10Bi. In applications that require line-of-sight, polarized glass is able to eliminate glare which could partially block humans’ vision. All in all, both 0.05Bi and 0.10Bi have higher density than the glass containing lead. Therefore, the fabricated glass sample would perform better as radiation-shielding glass compared to lead glass. Hence, this lead-free glass can be widely used in radiation shielding applications that require transparency.  Acknowledgement This research was funded by MyBrainSc scholarship and GPJP grant (UPNM/2022/GPJP/SG/3).  References [1] Dai, Tangye, and Qun Dai. "Effect of blood lead levels on periodontitis in American adults: a cross-sectional analysis from the national health and nutrition examination survey." BMC Oral Health 24, no. 1 (2024): 364. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12903-024-04068-1 [2] Green, Rhys E., and Deborah J. Pain. "Partitioning Human Dietary Exposure to Ammunition-Derived Lead in Meat from Game Animals Between Bullets and Shotgun Pellets." 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